AP Government Terms

Faction

A term used by the founders of this country to refer to political parties and special interests or interest groups.

Interest Group

A collection of people who share some common interest or attitude and seek to influence government for specific ends. Interest groups usually work within the framework of government and employ tactics such as lobbying to achieve their goals.

Movement

A large body of people interested in a common issue, idea, or concern that is of continuing significance and who are willing to take action. Movements seek to change attitudes or institutions, not just policies.

Open Shop

A company with a labor agreement under which union membership cannon be required as a condition of employment.

Closed Shop

A company with labor agreement under which union membership can be a condition of employment.

Free Rider

An individual who does not join a group representing his or her interests yer receives the benefit of the influence the group achieves.

"Federal Registrar"

Official document, published every weekday, that lists the new and proposed regulation of executive departments and regulatory agencies.

"Amicus Curiae" Brief

Literally, a "friend of the court" brief, filled by and individual or organization to present arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case.

Lobbying

Engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislatures, and the policies they enact.

Lobbyist

A person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporations to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches.

Revolving Door

Employment cycle in which individuals who work for governmental agencies regulating interests eventually end up working for interest groups or businesses with the same policy concern.

Iron Triangle

A mutually dependent relationship among interest groups, congressional committees and subcommittees, and government agencies that share a common policy concern.

Political Action Committee (PAC)

The political arm of an interest group that in legally entitled to raise funds on a voluntary basis from member, stockholders or employees in order to contribute funds to favored candidates or political parties.

Bundling

A tactic of political action committees whereby they collect contributions from like-minded individuals (each limited to $2000) and present them to a candidate or political party as a "bundle," thus increasing their influence.

Independent Expenditures

The Supreme Court has ruled that individuals, groups, and parties can spend unlimited amounts in campaigns for or against candidates as long as they operate independently from the candidates. When an individual, group, or party does so, they are making an independent expenditure.

Hard Money

Political contributions given to a party, candidate, or interest group that are limited in amount and fully disclosed. Raising such limited funds is harder than raising unlimited funds, hence the term "hard money."

Soft Money

Money raised in unlimited amounts by political parties for party-building purposes. Now largely illegal except for limited contributions to state and local parties for voter registration and get-out-the-vote efforts.

Issue Advocacy

Unlimited and undisclosed spending by and individual or group on communications that do not use words like "vote for" or "vote against," although much of this activity is actually about electing or defeating candidates.

527 Organization

A political group organized under section 527 of the IRS Code that may accept and spend unlimited amounts of money on election activities so long as they are not spent on broadcast ads run in the last 30 days before a primary or 60 days before a general election where a clearly identified candidate is referred to and a relevant electorate is targeted. 527 groups were important to the 2000 and 2004 elections.

Quid Pro Quo

Something given with the expectation of receiving something in return.

Democracy

Government by the people. either directly or indirectly, with free and frequent elections.

Direct Democracy

Government in which citizens vote on laws and select officials more directly.

Representative Democracy

Government that derives its powers indirectly from the people, who elect those who will govern; also called a republic.

Constitutional Democracy

A government that enforces recognized limits on those who govern and allows the voice of the people to be heard through free, fair, and relatively frequent elections.

Constitutionalism

The set of arrangements, including checks and balances, federalism, separation of powers, rule of law, due process, and a bill of rights, that requires leaders to listen, think, bargain, and explain before they act or make law. We then hold them politically and legally accountable for how they exercise their powers.

Statism

The idea that the rights of the nation are supreme over the rights of the individuals residing in that nation.

Popular Consent

The idea that a just government must derive its powers from the consent of the people it governs.

Majority Rule

Governance according to the expressed preferences of the majority.

Majority

The candidate or party that wins more than half the votes cast in an election.

Plurality

Candidate or party with the most votes cast in an election, not necessarily more than half.

Ideology

A consistent pattern of beliefs about political values and the role of government.

Theocracy

Government by religious leaders, who claim divine guidance.

Articles of Confederation

The first governing document of the confederated states, drafted in 1777, ratified in 1781, and replaced by the present Constitution in 1789.

Annapolis Convention

A convention held in September 1786 to consider problems of trade and navigation, attended by five states and important because it issued the call to Congress and the states for what became the Constitutional Convention.

Constitutional Convention

The convention in Philadelphia, May 25 to September 17, 1787, that framed the Constitution of the United States.

Shays' Rebellion

Rebellion by farmers in western Massachusetts in 1786-1787, protesting mortgage foreclosures; led by Daniel Shays and important because it highlighted the need for a strong national government just as the call for the Constitutional Convention went out.

Virginia Plan

Initial proposal at the Constitutional Conventional made by the Virginia delegation for a strong central government with a bicameral legislature, the lower house to be elected by the votes and the upper chosen by the lower.

New Jersey Plan

Proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by William Paterson of New Jersey for a central government with a single-house legislature in which each state would be represented equally.

Connecticut Compromise

Compromise agreement by states at the Constitutaonal Convention for a bicameral legislature with a lower house in which representation would be based on population and an upper house in which each state would have two senators.

Three-fifths Compromise

Compromise agreement between northern and southern states at the Constitutional Convention that three-fifths of the slave population would be counted for determining direct taxation and representation in the House of Representatives.

Federalists

Supporters of ratification of the Constitutionality whose position promoting a strong central government was later voiced in the Federalist party.

Antifederalists

Opponents of ratification of the Constitution and of a strong central government generally.

"The Federalist"

Series of essays promoting ratification of the Constitution, published anonymously by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison in 1787 and 1788.

Naturalism

A legal action conferring citizenship on an alien.

Dual Citizenship

Citizenship in more than one nation.

Right of Expatriation

The right to renounce one's citizenship.

Property Rights

The rights of an individual to own, use, rent, invest in, buy, and sell property.

Contract Clause

Clause of the Constitution (Article I, Section 10) originally intended to prohibit state governments from modifying contracts made between individuals; for a while interpreted as prohibiting state governments from taking actions that that adversely affect property rights; no longer interpreted so broadly and no longer constrains state governments from exercising their police powers.

Police Powers

Inherent powers of state governments to pass laws to protect the public heath, safety, and welfare; the national government has no directly granted police powers but accomplishes the same goals through other delegated powers.

Eminent Domain

Power of a government to take private property for public use; the U.S. Constitution gives national and state governments this power and requires them to provide just compensation for property so taken.

Regulatory Taking

Government regulation of property so extensive that government is deemed to have taken the property by the power of eminent domain, for which it must compensate the property owners.

Due Process

Established rules and regulations that restrain people in government who exercise power.

Procedural Due Process

Constitutional requirement that governments proceed by proper methods; places limits on how governmental power my be exercised.

Substantive Due Process

Constitutional requirement that governments act reasonable and that the substance of the laws themselves be fair and reasonable; places limits on what a government may do.

Search Warrant

A writ issued by a magistrate that authorizes the police to search a particular place or person, specifying the place to be searched and the objects to be seized.

Racial Profiling

Police targeting of racial minorities as potential suspects of criminal activities.

Exclusionary Rule

Requirement that evidence unconstitutionally or illegally obtained be excluded from a criminal trial.

Immunity

Exemption form prosecution for a particular crime in return for testimony pertaining to the case.

Grand Jury

A jury of 12 to 23 persons who, in private, hear evidence presented by the government to determine whether persons shall be required to stand trial. If the jury believes there is sufficient evidence that a crime was committed, it issues an indictment.

Indictment

A formal written statement from a grand jury charging an individual with an offense; also called a "true bill."

Plea Bargain

Agreement between a prosecutor and a defendant that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser offense to avoid having to stand trial for a more serious offense.

Petit Jury

A jury of 6 to 12 persons that determines guilt or innocence in a civil or criminal action.

Double Jeopardy

Trial or punishment for the same crime by the same government; forbidden by the Constitution.

Community Policing

Assigning police to neighborhoods where they walk the beat and work with churches and other community groups to reduce crime and improve relations with minorities.

Realigning Election

An election during periods of expanded suffrage and change in the economy and society that proves to be a turning point, redefining the agenda of politics and the alignment of voters within parties.

Laissez-faire Economics

Theory that opposes government interference in economic affairs beyond what is necessary to protect life and property.

Keynesian Economics

Theory based on the principles of John Maynard Keynes, stating that government spending should increase during business slumps and be curbed during booms.

Divided Government

Governance divided between the parties, as when one holds the presidency and the other controls one or both houses of Congress.

National Party Convention

A national meeting of delegates elected in primaries, caucuses, or state conventions who assemble once every four years to nominate candidates for president and vice president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules.

527 Organization

Interest groups organized under Section 527 of the internal Revenue Service code may advertise for or against candidates. If their source of funding is corporations or unions, they have some restrictions on broadcast advertising. 527 organizations were important in the 2000 and 2004 elections.

Reapportionment

The assigning by Congress of congressional seats after each census. State legislatures reapportion state legislative districts.

Redistricting

The redrawing of congressional and other legislative district lines following the census, to accommodate population shifts and keep districts as equal as possible in population.

Gerrymandering

The drawing of legislative district boundaries to benefit a party, group, or incumbent.

Safe Seat

An elected office that is predictable won by one party of the other, so the success of that party's candidate is almost taken for granted.

Incumbents

The current holders of elected office.

Bicameralism

The principle of a two-house legislature.

Enumerated Powers

The powers explicitly given to Congress in the Constitution.

Speaker

The presiding officer in the House of Representatives, formally elected by the House but actually selected by the majority party.

Majority Leader

The legislative leader selected by the majority party who helps plan party strategy, confers with other party leaders, and tries to keep members of the party in line.

Minority Leader

The legislative leader selected by the minority party as spokesperson for the opposition.

Whip

Party leader who is the liaison between the leadership and the rank-and-file in the legislature.

Party Caucus

A meeting of the members of a party in a legislative chamber to select party leaders and to develop party policy. Called a "conference" by the Republicans.

Closed Rule

A procedural rule in the House of Representatives that prohibits any amendments to bills or provides that only members of the committee reporting the bill may offer amendments.

Open Rule

A procedural rule in the House of Representatives that permits floor amendments within the overall time allocated to the bill.

President Pro Tempore

Officer of the Senate selected by the majority party to act as chair in the absence of the vice president.

Hold

A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator temporarily blocks the consideration of a bill or nomination,

Filibuster

A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor and thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue.

Cloture

A procedure for terminating debate, especially filibusters, in the Senate.

Senatorial Courtesy

Presidential custom of submitting the names of prospective appointees for approval to senators from the states in which the appointees are to work.

Devolution Revolution

The effort to slow the growth of the federal government by returning many functions to the states.

Federalism

Constitutional arrangement whereby power is distributed between a central government and sub-divisional governments, called states in the United States. The national and the sub-divisional governments both exercise direct authority over individuals.

Unitary System

Constitutional arrangement in which power is concentrated in a central government.

Confederation

Constitutional arrangement in which sovereign nations or states, by compact, create a central government but carefully limit its power and do not give it direct authority over individuals.

Express Powers

Powers specifically granted to one of the branches of the national government by the Constitution.

Implied Powers

Powers inferred form the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Clause of the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 3) setting forth the implied powers of Congress. It states that Congress, in addition to its express powers, has the right to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying out all powers vested by the Constitution in the national government.

Inherent Powers

The powers of the national government in the field of foreign affairs that the Supreme Court has declared do not depend on constitutional grants but rather grow out of the very existence of the national government.

Commerce Clause

The clause in the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 1) that gives Congress the power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations.

Federal Mandate

A requirement imposed by the federal government as a condition for the receipt of federal funds.

Concurrent Powers

Powers that the Constitution gives to both the national and state governments, such as the power to levy taxes.