Exam 1 Review - Research Methods & Ethics

Comprehensive flashcards for Exam 1 Review covering scientific principles, theory-data cycle, intuition biases, claim types, validities, Belmont Report, and research ethics.

What famous quote regarding scientific and statistical models is attributed to George Box (1919-2013)?

"All models are wrong… but some are useful"

What is empiricism in scientific research?

Basing belief on empirical evidence gathered from observation rather than intuition or feelings.

How do quantitative and qualitative research methods differ?

Quantitative methods turn empirical observations into numbers, whereas qualitative methods create rich descriptions that are not simplified into numbers.

What sequence of steps is described by the Theory-Data Cycle in scientific research?

Theory leads to research questions, which lead to research design, preregistered hypotheses, data collection/analysis, and data feeding back into support or revision of the theory.

What does it mean for a research study to be preregistered?

The researcher states the study's hypotheses publicly before collecting and analyzing any data.

How do basic research and applied research differ?

Basic research searches for knowledge for the sake of knowing with high experimental control, while applied research seeks solutions to real-world problems with less experimental control.

What three requirements must a good scientific theory satisfy?

It must be consistently supported by data, be falsifiable, and be parsimonious.

What is parsimony in theory formulation?

The adoption of the simplest assumption in formulating a theory, also known as Ockham's razor.

What is the availability heuristic?

A cognitive bias where events that are vivid, recent, or memorable easily come to mind and carry larger weight, leading to overestimation.

What is confirmation bias?

The habit of cherry-picking sources of information that support what one already believes while ignoring evidence to the contrary.

What is the bias blind spot?

The tendency for people to think that, compared to others, they themselves are less likely to engage in biased reasoning.

What strategies are recommended to combat disinformation?

Click restraint (pausing before accepting or sharing) and lateral reading (checking claims against alternative, legitimate sources).

What is a frequency claim?

A claim describing a particular rate or degree of a single measured variable, often expressed as a percentage or mean value.

What is an association claim?

A claim about at least two measured variables stating that they vary systematically together (covary), originating from correlational studies without claiming causality.

What defines a negative association between two variables?

A relationship where the value of one variable goes up while the value of the other variable goes down.

What are the roles of independent and dependent variables in causal claims?

The independent variable is manipulated to explain changes, while the dependent variable is measured to see how it is affected by the independent variable.

What three criteria must be satisfied to move from an association claim to a causal claim?

1. Covariance (association between variables), 2. Temporal precedence (independent variable precedes dependent variable), 3. Internal validity (no confounding variables).

What is construct validity?

The extent to which operational definitions and variables used in a study are good approximations of the conceptual construct being studied.

How do sample size and data spread influence precision in statistical validity?

Larger sample sizes and smaller data variability (spread) produce narrower confidence intervals and margins of error, indicating higher precision.

What does internal validity evaluate in a research study?

The extent to which a study can rule out alternative explanations or confounding variables for a causal relationship.

What concept does this diagram illustrate regarding research methodology?

Sampling from a target population to collect sample data and making statistical inferences back to the population.

What are the three core principles outlined in the Belmont Report for human subjects research?

1. The Principle of Respect for Persons, 2. The Principle of Beneficence, 3. The Principle of Justice.

Under the Belmont Report, what two main components make up the Principle of Respect for Persons?

1. Informed consent without coercion, recognizing autonomous agents. 2. Special protections for populations with reduced autonomy (e.g., children, prisoners, cognitively impaired).

How does the Belmont Report define coercion in research?

An implicit or explicit suggestion that non-participants will suffer negative consequences, or offering excessive amounts of money or services to induce participation.

What is required by the Belmont Report's Principle of Beneficence?

Researchers must protect participants from harm, ensure their well-being, and carefully balance the risks and benefits to individuals and the community.

What does the Principle of Justice dictate regarding research study participants?

There must be a fair balance between the people who bear the risks of participating in research and the people who benefit from its findings.

What main ethical issue arose during Stanley Milgram's obedience studies?

Participants experienced severe psychological distress (e.g., sweating, trembling, stuttering, groaning), yet procedures were continued in subsequent studies.

What is debriefing in the context of psychological research?

A post-experiment discussion where researchers inform participants about the true nature of the study and any deception that was used.