foods

Fat content

provides flavor + tenderizes products (ex: in muffins by shortening gluten strands)
Low fat products usually less tender, possibly less flavor
Fat is a medium for heat transfer, part of emulsions, tenderizing and leavening agent (it retains air when creamed or beaten)
fat increases calorie content

Overmixing muffin batter

develops more gluten strands, decreases air → batter can be lumpy, not smooth!!

Properly prepared muffins should have

Cauliflower top → slightly rounded, bumpy, golden brown
No lips :)
Uniform gas cells, tender, bland or slightly sweet

What consistency of food is flavor most easily detected in?

liquid

muffins vs cupcakes

cupcakes have more sugar contributing to a lighter, fluffier texture

cooking fruits and vegetables

changes flavor, texture, and nutritional quality → dry heat is best way to maintain texture and nutrition, steaming and boiling causes loss of water-soluble nutrients

fiber and cooking → insoluble fibers (cellulose) soften or break down, lignins are not softened, soluble fiber (pectin) dissolves into liquid

Chopping

releases flavor and aroma compounds, enzymes that are activated by oxygen
fruits and vegetables with polyphonic compounds brown after chopping → phenol oxidase is activated → coating fruit to prevent contact with O2, heating, coating with sulfur, and changing pH can prevent browning (ex: coating with sugar or lemon juice)

coddling

when cooking fruits → concentration of sugar in fruit = concentration of sugar in cooking liquid → get movement from cooking water into fruit, plumps up fruit, adds moisture, alters texture

gelatinization and pasting

gelatinization is the irreversible change that occurs with starch when you apply heat and add liquid

grain kernel slowly absorbs liquid → softens it, more palatable and digestible → water enters grain, grain swells and increases in size

pasting is beyond gelatinization → continued heating → granules swell and soften to form a starch paste → larger granule size, leakage of starch from granule, evaporation of water

whole vs refined grains

whole grains have the germ, endosperm, and bran still in tact → the germ and bran contain much of the polyphenols and antioxidants → earthier, nutty flavors

Whole wheat flours create products with smaller volume b/c germ has detrimental effects on gluten development

Retrogradation

occurs as the temperature decreases causing the degree of hydrogen bonding among the starch granules to increase → increases viscosity of cooking liquid → gel like consistency

Gluten free vs gluten containing grains

GF: Brown rice, oats, corn/cornmeal, quinoa, millet, buckwheat → as long as these are not cross contaminated

Gluten: Barley, bulgar, farro, rye products, whole wheat products

Baking soda vs baking powder

Baking soda requires acid to be added in order to release CO2, baking powder only needs the addition of a liquid, as acid is already included in it

Gluten

3D complex of proteins gluten and gliadin in which starch grains are embedded → contributes to structure of product when heated to high temperatures, as the proteins coagulate

Developed by manipulation (stirring or kneading), which allows protein molecules to slide past each other and form bonds → not enough manipulation = low volume, too much = long gluten strands, tough, peaked tops, tunnels, or even diminished volume due to broken gluten strands and loss of gas

3 major leavening agents in quick breads

air, steam, CO2

Chemical agents (ex baking soda/powder) generate CO2

Popovers and cream puffs leavened mostly by steam

Sugar functions

can tenderize products by interfering with gluten formation and competing for water added, decreasing uptake of water by flour

sweetens, leavens, browning

can delay gelatinization, but does not affect pasting, tenderizes starch gels in small amounts, but in large amounts can decrease gel strength

Acid functions

can breakdown starch granules, minimizing their thickening ability → minimize breakdown by cooking and thickening starch before acid is added

Taste and aroma of vegetables

Minimize sugar, organic acid, and other flavor component loss by cooking for shorter times and in less water

sulfur compounds in strongly flavored veggies produce an undesirable flavor (ex: onion, cabbage) → cooking them quickly in lots of water uncovered allows the sulfur to escape and be diluted

chopping allows release of flavor and aroma compounds, also activates enzymes that assist with flavor development → polyphenolic compounds cause fruits and veggies to brown when exposed to air (ex: apples, potatoes) → can be prevented by coating with sugar (limit exposure to air), heating, coating fruit with sulfur solution, altering pH with acids (ex: lemon juice)

Cooking method and texture of vegetables

Insoluble fibers cellulose an hemicellulose in the cell wall soften or breakdown

Pectin (soluble fiber) dissolves and goes into the solution if cooking product in water

Woody fibers, lignin, cannot be softened by cooking (ex in broccoli and asparagus)

Dry heat maintains texture and nutritive value of vegetables, steaming is better than boiling for preserving texture and nutritive value

yeast

a fungus, produces zymase, an enzyme that converts glucose and fructose into CO2, alcohol, and other flavor components → CO2 inflates yeasted bread dough and produces a light, airy baked product

saccharomyces cerevisiae = yeast

yeast ferments ideally at 86-95F or 30-35C, 80-85F more practical
fermentation is slow below 75F, if too hot then dough may rise before it mellows
Yeast eats sugar, when no sugar, glucose gets hydrolyzed from flour by yeast
Yeast cannot use lactose for food
Quick-rise and rapid-rise yeast produce CO2 in half the time

Gluten and dough development

Protein: determines water-absorption ability and gluten-formation potential, high protein flour is preferred for strong, elastic gluten → cake flour bad; rye, corn, soy flour needs wheat flour to increase volume b/c they do not produce elastic doughs

Liquid: hydrates yeast, proteins for gluten formation, starch for gelatinization; solvent for salt and sugar → amount used depends on absorptive capacity of gluten-forming proteins in flour → high protein flours absorb more liquid
potato water ideal in yeast bread because starch already gelatinized and easily degraded. Milk must be scalded before added to inactivate enzymes and kill bacteria that interfere with action of yeast → can add browning effects

Sugar: sugar already present naturally in wheat flours, more produced by amylases during fermentation, too much added sugar hinders fermentation → may need longer fermentation or proofing, but some can speed yeast growth, sugar can aid in browning, compete with wheat proteins for water → tenderizing

Salt: flavor, allow proteins to stretch without breaking, too much = retards fermentation, no salt = sticky dough, crumbly bread

Fat: increases tenderness by shortening gluten strands, solid fat > liquid oil

bread making steps

hydrating and solubilizing yeast and flour particles → manipulation (stirring, beating, kneading → make dough elastic) → fermentation (yeast produce CO2 and alcohol, gluten more elastic, acidity increase) → punching down (release excess gas and make air holes smaller, even grain) → benching (short rest to relax gluten, fermentation cont.) → makeup (shaping) → proofing (final rising after dough shaped) → baking

oven spring

increase in volume that occurs during first 10-12 minutes of baking

result of rapid expansion of gases with heating, increased fermentation of yeast, increased enzyme activity, and softening of gluten as temperature rises

poor oven spring happens due to inadequate fermentation → causes small loaf
too much oven spring caused by oven at too low temperature, insufficient salt, over fermentation → causes flat top that balloons over sides of pan, crumb with moth-eaten appearance

bread dough fermentation

yeast transforms sugars into CO2 and alcohol, amylase and protease enzymes degrade flour, gluten becomes more elastic, acidity increases, volume increases

time for fermentation depends on flour type, room temperature, concentrations of yeast, sugar, and salt

high temps create sticky dough and promotes bacteria growth (leads to undesirable flavors)

under-fermented breads = coarse, small, compact
over-fermented breads = coarse, small, pale (due to depletion of sugar by yeast), often have sour odor (due to overproduction of lactic acid)

what gives self-supporting structure of bread?

coagulated gluten and partially gelatinized starch

at 140F starch granules gelatinize and yeast are killed
as temp increases, enzyme activity ceases and gluten proteins coagulate

Egg facts

most bioavailable source of protein → most protein in white, while fat, cholesterol, most vitamins and minerals are in yolk → majority of fat in egg is monounsaturated

1 egg has lots of cholesterol (212mg) → more than one egg a day > dietary guidelines

eggs should always be eaten cooked → or else salmonella enteritidis

thickening ability: egg yolk > whole egg > egg white → egg yolk raise temperature at which gel forms, egg whites lower temp at which gel forms (when subbing for whole egg)

hard-cooked egg should never be cooked in boiling water, only simmered (<185F) → overcooking/boiling = tougher, rubbery egg white → can also cause green film on yolk-white interface from reaction b/w iron in yolk and sulfur in white → plunge egg into cold water to cool quickly (reduces pressure toward outer part of egg and draws H2S away from yolk

egg protein coagulation

depends on

temperature: egg white and yolk coagulate at different temps due to diff proteins → egg white coagulated at lower temps (144-149F) egg yolk coagulate at higher temps (149-158F)

Concentration: dilution of egg proteins raises temp at which they coagulate

acid: adding acid to egg white decreases pH near isoelectric point of egg proteins → this makes them less stable and sensitive to denaturation (coagulation) → acid lower coagulation temperature of egg proteins

sugar: elevated temp of coagulation and produces more tender coagulum

Salt: lowers temp of coagulation

Milk foams

foam = gas dispersed in liquid → when liquid shaken, air bubbles form, but foam disappears as soon as shaking stops because of high surface tension of water in milk → liquids foam readily only if surface tension is reduced (ex: by adding detergent)

Proteins in milk decrease surface tension of water, so beating can incorporate air into liquid, but foam is unstable unless form of milk is altered or stabilizers are added → viscous liquid more easily retains incorporated air

factors that affect milk and cream foams

viscosity: more viscosity = more stability → can achieve by adding excess solids, crystals, or gelatin, or coagulating proteins by adding acid during whipping

Concentration of fat: more fat = easier formation and stability of foams (heavy cream > milk)

temperature: cool temperatures cause fat droplets to harden and clump together more easily → cold liquid foams more readily

Sugar: helps prevent overbeating by delaying curdling → add toward end of whipping, otherwise beating time is increased and volume is decreased

factors that affect egg-white foams

temperature: egg whites at room temp foam faster than refrigerated egg b/c lower surface tension of warmer egg, but less stability

concentration: dilution with water increases volume but decreases stability

acids: decreases pH so proteins are more sensitive to denaturation → acid decreases time required to produce an egg-white foam and stabilizes it

sugar: increases time required for development of a foam, but increases stability → sugar should be added when foam barely flows in bowl (add a little at the time, beat after each addition) → sugar added before beating required more beating (stable, but less volume foam), sugar added after foam stable causes dull surface after baking

Fat: fat interferes with formation of foam

overbeating: peak stability occurs before maximum volume → overbeating produces unstable foam that collapses and becomes coarse

weeping and beading

weeping → accumulation of liquid at meringue/filling interface → caused by under coagulation of foam and is minimized by hot puddings or pie fillings

beading → over coagulation causes amber droplets of syrup to collect on surface of meringue → minimized by cool fillings

avoid both by baking meringues on hot fillings in hot oven (425F) for short time (4.5min) → produces tender, less sticky meringue

Meat, poultry, fish facts

excellent sources of protein, fat content depends on species for meat and cut for poultry, higher grades of meat usually have higher sat fat

all have similar cholesterol content, organ meats are super high in cholesterol

red meats good for iron zinc, pork good for thiamin

tenderness dependent on cut → exercised muscles (ex: shoulder, abdomen, rump) contain lots of connective tissue, making them less tender than less exercised muscles (upper, central portions like rib and loin)
tenderness also affected by degree of aging of meat after slaughter, age of animal, processing methods, and cooking methods

fish more tender b/c little connective tissue → proteins easily coagulated by heat or acid → short cook times, and fish can be “cooked” by acid marinade

cow

cow!!

during cooking of meats, heat affects the following:

Proteins: initial heating activates enzymes in meat → degrades muscle proteins until denatured by high temps → cooking meat at low temps for long time = more protein degradation → denatured proteins fragment, shorten, and cause meat to shrink → water lost, muscle dehydrated, less juiciness, increased toughness → high oven and broiling temps accelerate events

connective tissue: collagen = white connective tissue that forms wall of muscle fibers and binds them into bundles → at 102F collagen unwinds, at 149F collagen denatures, loses strengths, and shrinks to quarter of original length → collagen can be solubilized (hydrolyzed) to form gelatin with enough heat, moisture, and time → elastin not softened during cooking

fat: high temps melt fat, which can be absorbed by meat or become part of drippings → surface fat prevent moisture loss from evaporation, melted fat increases perception of juiciness by stimulating saliva secretion

flavor: heat develops flavor and aroma through formation and interaction of volatile substances, coagulation and breakdown of proteins, melting and decomposition of fats, caramelization and breakdown of carbs

color: browning of meats when cooked due to maillard reaction b/w sugar and protein, results in characteristic savory flavor of browned meats

Methods of cooking meats and poultry

Dry: roasting, oven/pan broiling, dep-fat, pan and stir frying → used best for tender meats so not necessary to hydrolyze collagen → decreases tenderness by denaturing proteins → can be used for less tender cuts if cooking temperatures are kept low for long period of time or thin piece of meat cut thinly across grain (london broil)

moist: pan and oven braising, simmering (stewing), steaming, pressure cookings → best for less tender cuts of meat because it tenderizes meat through collagen hydrolysis → temp low for long time also causes enzyme activity (more tender)

tender cuts of poultry can be cooked by all methods, juicier meat results when plump birds are roasted, bouillon makes up less flavor when stewing young poultry, less tender, older fowl should be cooked by moist methods

most fish very low in fat and contain almost no connective tissue → should be cooked until just done or else dry, tough, diff flavor product → fish should be quickly cooked by both dry and moist methods, fat often added when using dry heat methods

tenderizing less tender cuts

Mechanical means: grinding, pounding, cubing, slicing thinly
Enzymes: preparations catalyze breakdown of proteins
Moist heat: slowly solubilizes collagen to gelatin
Marinating: acids increase moisture retention
Cooking at low temperature 250º F (120º C) for a long time: solubilizes

collagen to gelatin.

Cheeses

milk and milk products good sources of protein, calcium, riboflavin, vitamin A

full fat milk products = lots of cals, fat, and sat fat, and cholesterol
cheese often has lots of sodium
acid coagulated cheese (cottage and cream) = much less calcium because calcium associates with whey, which is removed in production of these cheeses

Proteins of milk coagulated by

acid: when pH of milk falls below 5.2, casein coagulates ( - chrgs that stabilize this protein are neutralized by + chrgs of H+ from acid) → casein salts formed and milk curdles → curds formed by acid = soft, fragile, high moisture, low calcium content because most calcium stays in why

rennin: an enzyme, sold as an extract called rennet → add rennet to milk, milk coagulates to form cheese → curds formed by enzymes like rennin are rough and rubbery, low moisture, lots of calcium → often ripened for 3-12 months before eaten to develop flavor and texture

cheese sensitive to heat → causes coagulation of protein and melting of fat → overheating = tough and rubbery, broken fat emulsion → prevent by reducing cook time by grating cheese, use a double broiler, melt in liquid with lower boiling point (like alcohol)

Legumes, nuts, and seeds facts

good sources of protein and fiber

legumes (dried beans, peas, lentils) = best protein source of the plant proteins, rich in carbs and fiber, almost no fat, sat fat, or cholesterol

nuts and seeds: high in cals due to high fat content, but healthier sources of protein than most meats because no sat fat or cholesterol

minerals found in these, but availability limited due to presence of fiber

Plant proteins poor or good quality proteins?

poor quality because lack sufficient quantity or proper ratio of one or more essential amino acids → amino acid lacking in a protein = limiting amino acid → quality of plant protein improved if limiting amino acid is supplied as an additive or another plant protein that has the amino acid in abundance (protein complementing)

legumes limited in methionine and tryptophan, nuts in lysine and tryptophan, grains and seeds in lysine

cooking legumes

alkaline environment increases speed at which dried legumes rehydrate, but destroys thiamin → adding baking soda to dried legumes shortens cooking time, too much causes mushy product → acids have opposite effect → add acidic ingredients after legumes are softened

Flakiness of pastry

dependent on the type and consistency of the fat, the type of flour, the type and amount of liquid, extent and method of mixing, and the extent that the dough is rolled → Flakiness is not required for tenderness, as can be observed in oil pastry.

caused by development of blisters or holes when fat melts during making → melting fat is absorbed by dough and leaves an opening → moisture present in melted fat and dough vaporizes to steam → leavens and increases size of opening → structure solidifies when gluten coagulates from heat

large blisters bad because unstable and prone to breaking → minimize large blisters by pricking raw crust to allow steam to escape during baking, or placing weight on crust

how does fat affect pastry

determines flakiness, flavor, and color:

lard: best choice because more pliable over range of temps than butter, margarine, or hydrogenated fat

hydrogenated fat: satisfactory pastry produced due to plasticity, shortening power, and bland flavor

butter and margarine: water content (20%) of these fats necessitates that the amount of water in a recipe be reduced, salt is omitted

oil: produces mealy, tender pastry that is often dry and greasy rather than flaky

goal of pastry is to shorten strands of gluten with layers of fat between them → over manipulation or rerolling increases gluten length and creates tough product → don’t stretch pastry because gluten strands shrink when coagulated

preventing soggy crust

lower temps increase crust sog (often used for custard pies) → minimize sog by prior baking to set crust, baking crust and custard separately, using combination of high and low oven temps

top of double-crust pie traps steam generated by filling → sog → prevent by cutting slits in top crust, cooling filling, baking in hot oven

Lighter baking techniques

often amount of fat and sugar may not be functionally necessary in most desserts → substitute or reduce amounts → if not possible, reduce portion size

Reducing fat in baked goods: baking pan, oils, butter and margarine, solid fat, egg, dairy, chocolate, flavor additions like nuts and coconut

Consider source of fat:

Baking pan prep → use cooking spray, silicone baking surface, parchment or waxed paper to line instead (or non-stick)

Oils: reduce amount by 1/3 to ½ → fruit purees can be used to substitute (prunes, bananas, pumpkin, applesauce), work well in cake-like items

lighter butter and margarine: contain higher water content than full-fat counterparts → use less (1/4 to 1/2) called for in full-fat recipe, supplement remaining volume with liquid veg oils or fruit purees

solid fats: reduce by up to ½ amount with no further substitution, if dry add more fluid by water or fruit juice → works well for cookies, use butter-flavored cooking spray to coat surfaces instead

eggs: use two egg whites for each whole egg can reduce fat and cholesterol, works well in cakes, cookies, quick breads → vegan egg replacer: 1T flaxseed + 3T water, allow to thicken

dairy: use skim or fat free to sub for whole and 2% milk. fat free half and half or evaporated skim milk to sub for cream. Neufchatel, reduced-fat cream cheese, fat-free or light sour cream, plain or Greek yogurt and reduced-fat silken tofu can often substitute for cream cheese in desserts such as cheesecake, icing, custard-consistency fillings and pound cakes.

chocolate: reduce amount by half, use baking cocoa (almost fat free) → 3T baking cocoa + 1T veg oil for ever oz of baking chocolate

flavor additions such as nuts and coconut: reduce by half, replace with dried fruits, sub volume with additional flour or other starch ingredients like oats

reducing sugar in baked goods

granulated and brown sugar:
reduce amount by 1/3 to 1/2. sub brown for granulated to add more depth of flavor
adjust flavorings like vanilla to imply sweetness → double vanilla or add sweet spices like cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg
artificial sweeteners → avoid excessive sweetness and aftertaste by replacing half amount called for with sugar sub → may need to reduce bake time and temp to prevent burning, may not brown as well
add fruit purees

honey and molasses (add flavor intensity and depth): reduce amount by half and add in fruit puree to make up for moisture loss

other lighter dessert modifications

whole grains like whole wheat flour or mashed beans in place of flour, add oats, oat bran, bran, wheat germ → results in heavier texture, may need more moisture → blending white/whole wheat can be better

replace full fat with lighter subs → replace ice cream or whipped cream with yogurt, fruit-based desserts like fruit tarts instead of pie, fat-free pudding and custard instead of full-fat, skip frosting or icing