kinetic energy
the work done by an object of mass (m) and velocity (v) as its speed approaches 0
E = 1/2mv^2
electron volt
a unit of energy equivalent to the kinetic energy of a single electron accelerated through a voltage of 1 volt
force
a vector quantity characterized by the ability to cause acceleration
acceleration
the rate of change of velocity with time
a = dv/dt, where a is acceleration, dv is change in velocity, and dt is the change in time
newton’s second law
the acceleration of an object is given by the ratio of the net force acting on the object and its mass
a = Fn/m, where Fn is the net force and m is the mass
centripetal acceleration
the rate of change in the direction of velocity over time
a = v^2/r = w^2 • r, where v is velocity, r is the radius, w is angular velocity
angular velocity
the ratio of the angle (delta phi, usually measured in radians) traversed to the amount of time it takes to traverse the angle (delta t)
w = d phi/dt
momentum
the product of the mass (m) and the velocity (v) of an object
p = mv
moment of inertia
serves the same purpose in circular and linear motion
characterized by the resistance of the object against angular acceleration
that of a point-like object can be calculated by the following equation: I = mr^2
angular momentum
serves the same purpose in circular and linear motion
by definition, its the product of an object’s angular velocity and its moment of inertia
potential energy of an object in a homogenous gravitational field
the potential energy of an object with a mass (m) at a height (h) in a homogenous gravitational field characterized by a gravitational acceleration of (g) given by the following equation:
Epot = mgh
potential energy of a charged object in an electrostatic field
the electrostatic potential energy of an object with a charge (Q) at position (A) is given by the equation:
Epot = Q • Ua, where Ua is the potential difference at point A
work
the amount of energy transferred by a force
W = Fs, where W is the work done, F is the net force acting on the object, and s is the displacement in the direction of the force
buoyant force
the upward force exerted by a fluid/gas on an object immersed in it
its equal to the weight of the fluid/gas that the body displaces (archimedes principle)
Fb = pf • V’ • g, where Fb is the buoyant force, pf is the density of the fluid, V’ is the submerged volume, and g is the gravity
general form of the work-energy theorem & special forms for electric and gravitational field
general form: KEb - KEa = 1/2 • m • (vb^2 - va^2) = Wab, where m is the mass, va & vb are the speed of the objects at the respective points, Wab is the work done on the object between points A and B
electric field: KEb - KEa = Q • Uab, where Q is the charge of the object, Uab is the electric potential difference between points A and B
gravitational field: KEb - KEa = mgh(ab), where h(ab) is the difference between points A and B
power
the rate at which work is done
P = W/t, where P is power, W is work done, and t is time
the unit of power is Watts (W = J/s)
voltage
the voltage between points A and B is the difference between the electric potential between A and B
the unit is volts (V)
if the difference between A and B is 1V, then the work required to move a charge of 1 coulomb from point A to B is 1 joule
electric current
the amount of charge transported across a boundary per unit time
the unit is ampere (A)
A = coulomb/seconds
resistance
according to Ohm’s law, resistance (R) of a piece of conducting material is the ratio of the voltage applied across it (U) and the current running through it
R = U/I
unit is Ohm (omega = V/A)
electric dipole
is the separated pair of positive (+q) and an equal amount of negative (-q) charge
electric dipole moment is defined by:
p = q • r, where r is the separation distance between the charges
it is a vector quantity pointing from the negative dipole towards the positive
electric lorentz force
Fl = EQ, where Fl is the lorentz force, E is the electric field, Q is the charge of the particle
for positive particles, the force is parallel
for negative particles, the force is antiparallel with the direction of the electric field
the particle is accelerated in a linear fashion along the direction of the force
magnitude of the magnetic lorentz force
Fl = Q • v • B • sin (theta), where theta is the angle enclosed by the velocity vector and the direction of the magnetic field, Q is the charge, v is the velocity of the particle, B is the magnetic field
rule applied to obtain the direction of the lorentz force: right-hand rule
the moving charged particle is deflected perpendicularly to both the velocity vector and magnetic field w/o change to its kinetic energy
energy and momentum of a photon
the energy of a photon of frequency f is hf
the momentum is hf|c=h|λ, where h is Planck’s constant, c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and λ is the wavelength of the photon
ascending order of the electromagnetic spectrum according to energy
radiowaves < microwaves < infrared < visible light < ultraviolet < x-ray, gamma
visible light
the range of electromagnetic radiation observable by the human eye (approx. 400-750 nm)
limiting frequency
f(max) = eU/h, where h is Planck’s constant, e is the charge of an electron
3 most important mechanism of the absorption of gamma and x-rays
photo effect
compton-effect
pair production
major difference between photo effect and compton-effect
in the photo effect, all energy of the x-ray or gamma photon is used to ionize the atom & set an electron in motion
in the compton-effect, only part of the energy is used & a photon with lower energy is released
minimal energy of a gamma-photon needed for pair production
energy equivalent to the mass of the electron and positron according to the Einstein mass-energy equivalence equation:
E = (me + mp) • c², where me and mp are the rest masses of an electron and positron respectively, c is the speed of light in a vacuum, E is the minimal energy for a gamma-photon to induce pair-production
why is a heavy nucleus necessary for pair production?
required by law of conservation of momentum
annihilation
process in which an electron and positron (particle/antiparticle pair) collide
the total mass-energy of the particle system is converted to the energy of 2 gamma-photons
interference
the superposition of waves resulting in the generation of a new wave pattern
constructive & destructive interference
constructive is when the amplitude of the resultant wave is greater than that of the individual waves
destructive is when the amplitude of the resultant wave is less than that of the individual waves
requirement for maximally constructive/destructive interference if 2 propagating waves w/ identical wavelength interfere?
when maximally constructive interference occurs, if the path difference (ds) between the waves is an integer multiple of the wavelength (λ):
ds = l • λ, where l = 0, 1, 2, 3,… (this happens when the crests of both waves superimpose)
when maximally destructive interference occurs, if (ds) = (l+1/2)λ, the crest of one wave superimposes on the trough of the other.
condition for constructive interference for an EM wave with λ diffracted on a crystal with a grating constant of c (angle of incidence = 90º)
c • cosa = l • λ, where l = 0, 1, 2, 3,…n, a = angle of diffraction
transverse and longitudinal waves
in transverse waves, the displacement of oscillating particles is perpendicular to the direction of propagation
in longitudinal waves, the displacement is parallel to the direction of propagation
monochromatic light
light is monochromatic if its spectrum consists of only 1 wavelength
special characteristics of laser light
monochromatic
coherence in time & space
small divergence
high light density
types of interactions laser light has with tissues
photo-thermal (laserthermy, coagulation, vaporization, carbonization)
photochemical reactions, fluorescence
photodissociation
multi-photon ionization
when is EM radiation coherent?
if it consists of photons capable of forming observable interference fringes
basic phenomena the generation of laser emission is based on
population inversion needed for light amplification but is only possible in systems with 3 or more energy levels
stimulated emission needed to give rise to coherent monochromatic light
approximate coherence length of laser & classical light source
10^10 cm for laser & a couple of cm for classic light source
ascending order of transitions according to the energy difference (vibrational, rotational, electronic)
rotational < vibrational < electronic
lambert beer law
log(J0/J) = εcL = A
or
J = J0 • 10^-εcL
where:
J - light intensity after passing through a material with thickness L
J0 - incident light intensity when entering sample
A - absorbance (optical density/extinction
ε - molar extinction coefficient
c - concentration in mol/liter
L - optical path length
what the molar extinction coefficient ε depends on
the type of absorbing material, wavelength of light, temperature, type of solvent & environment
how much does the intensity of light decrease if the absorbance (optical density, extinction) of a solution is 1?
it decreases 10-fold
molar extinction coefficient
absorbance (optical density) of a solution with a concentration of 1M and an optical path length of 1 cm
which wavelength is the characteristic maxima of proteins & nucleic acids
proteins 280 nm, nucleic acids 260 nm
amino acids with reasonably high absorption
Tyr, Trp, Phe
singlet & triplet state
singlet: number of unpaired electrons is 0 & the value of resultant spin multiplicity is 1
triplet: number of unpaired electrons is 2 & value of resultant spin multiplicity is 3
possible ways of relaxation of an excited electron in a molecule
vibrational relaxation
internal conversion
intersystem crossing
fluorescence
phosphorescence
delayed fluorescence
energy transfer to another molecule
fluorescence lifetime definition
the time during which the number of excited molecules decreases to 1/e-times (37%) of its initial value
what is a. scintillation, b. chemiluminescence, c. photoluminescence?
processes where photon emission is elicited by
a. ionizing radiation
b. chemical reaction
c. excitation by photons
fluorescnece quantum efficiency (yield)
fraction of excited molecules emitting a fluorescent photon
number of fluorescence photons divided by the number of absorbed photons
rate constant of fluorescence divided by the rate constants of all possible de-excitation processes
why is fluorescence quantum yield always smaller than 1?
because relaxation from the excited state can be accomplished not just by fluorescence emission
lifetime range of fluorescence
τ = 10^-9 - 10^-7 s
lifetime range of phosphorescence
τ = 10^-6 - 10 s
why is phosphorescence lifetime longer than fluorescence
because phosphorescence is the result of spin-forbidden transitions
why förster type resonance energy transfer is a sensitive method for distance measurements?
because its probability is proportional to the inverse 6th power of the separation between the donor and the acceptor
what förster type resonance energy transfer be used for in biology
measuring inter- & intra-molecular distances
parameters determined using fluorescent measurements
DNA, RNA, protein & lipid content of a cell/the quantity of any kind of material tagged with a fluorescence label
permeability of the cell membrane
intracellular enzyme activity
membrane potential
intracellular Ca2+ level
intracellular pH
presence & density of cell surface antigens & receptors
mitochondria potential & number of mitochondria per cell
index of refraction
gives speed of light in a given material according to the following equation:
c = c0/n, where c is the speed of light in the material, c0 is the speed of light in a vacuum, n is the index of refraction
snell’s law of refraction
light beam is refracted when it travels from a material with a refractive index of n1 into a material with a refractive index of n2 (n1 ≠ n2)
refraction is described by the following equation:
sin(a)/sin(B) = c1/c2 = n2/n1, where a and B are the angles of incidence and refraction respectively
c1 and c2 are the speeds of light in the 2 materials
shortest resolvable distance in a light microscope
approx. 200 nm
how can resolving power of a microscope increased
by decreasing the wavelength of light
by increasing the index of refraction of the material between the objective and the object
by increasing the half angle of the objective
numerical aperture
the product of the index of refraction of the material between the object and the objective (n), and the sine of the half angle of the objective (sin(a)): n•sin(a)
formula of resolving power (f) of a conventional light microscope
f = 1/d = (2n•sin(a))/λ
where:
n = refractive index of the medium between the coverslip & the objective
a = half angle of the objective
λ = wavelength of light
d = minimum distance between 2 points at which they are resolvable
dichroic mirror function in a fluorescence microscope
reflects the excitation light & is transparent for the emitted photons => it separates the excitation & emission light paths
excitation filter function in a fluorescence microscope
transparent only in the wavelength range in which the fluorescent dye can be excited => allows only those photons to reach the sample & excite the fluorescent molecule
emission filter function in a fluorescence microscope
transparent only in the wavelength range in which the fluorescent dye emits photons => only photons emitted by the fluorescent dye reach the detector
imagine aberrations in optical systems
chromatic aberration
spherical aberration
astigmatism
coma
curvature of the field of the image
barrel-shaped & cushion shapes distortion of the image
equation for the relationship between the image distance (i), object distance (o), and the focal distance (f)
1/i + 1/o = 1/f
SI unit of diopter
D (diopter) = 1/f
its the refractive power of the lens
f is the focal length of a given lens
SI unit: 1/m
2 discoveries that made construction of an electron microscope possible
an electron can be regarded as a wave & its wavelength is only a fraction of the wavelength of visible light
an electron beam can be focused with a magnetic field
signals that can be detected during an electron microscopic measurement
back-scattered electrons
secondary electrons
characteristic x-rays
auger electrons
absorbed electrons
cathode luminescence
transmitted electrons
2 types of electron microscopes
transmission electron microscope (TEM)
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
principle of TEM
a thin (typically 100nm thick) sample is illuminated with an electron beam
sample scatters a fraction of the electrons (doesn’t absorb the electrons)
an image is formed from the scattered electrons using magnetic lenses
the image is characteristic of the electron scattering properties of the sample
principle of SEM
sample is scanned by a thin electron beam
secondary electrons induced by the electron beam are detected on a pixel-by-pixel basis
isotopes
variants of a chemical element with a given atomic number whose mass numbers are different
list the isotopes of hydrogen with their mass number and constituents of their nuclei
hydrogen - mass no. of 1 - composed of 1 proton
deuterium - mass no. of 2 - composed of 1 proton and 1 neutron
tritium - mass no. of 3 - composed of 1 proton and 2 neutrons
mass defect of nuclei
mass defect = the difference between the mass of a nucleus and the total mass of its constituents
Z: number of protons, A-Z: number of neutrons, where Z and A are atomic and mass number respectively
dm = ([Z]m proton + [A-Z] m neutron) - m atom
where dm is the mass defect, m proton is the mass of a free unbound proton, m neutron is the mass of a free unbound neutron, m atom is the mass of the given atomic nucleus
relationship between the total binding energy (dE) & the mass defect (dm) of a given nucleus
dE = dm • c², where c is the speed of light in a vacuum
according to Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence principle
how the binding energy per nucleon changes as a function of mass number
binding energy per nucleon has a maximum at nuclei with mass numbers 55-60 (i.e. Fe)
properties of nuclear force (range, strength, direction)
have limited range
effect is negligible at a distance of more than a single nucleon
independent of charge
very powerful attractive forces whose magnitude exceeds that of electrostatic forces
what kind of energy level does a nucleon reside on in a nucleus compared to the energy of a free particle?
a bound nucleon has negative potential energy compared to a free particle
types of radioactive radiation & characterize particles constituting them
alpha radiation consists of helium nuclei
negative beta radiation consists of electrons
positive beta radiation consists of positrons
gamma radiation is an electromagnetic radiation consisting of high energy photons
direction of charges in the atomic number and mass number of nuclei during alpha decay, both types of beta decay, gamma decay and electron capture
alpha decay: -4 in mass no., -2 in atomic no.
-ve beta decay: 0 in mass no., +1 in atomic no.
+ve beta decay and electron capture: 0 in mass no., -1 in atomic no.
gamma decay: 0 in mass no., 0 in atomic no.
why is the beta decay spectrum continuous?
besides an electron/positron, an antineutrino/neutrino is also emitted & the energy released during the decay is shared randomly between the 2 particles
electron capture
some nuclei are capable of capturing an electron in the K shell decreasing their atomic number by 1
the vacancy generated in the K shell is filled by an electron in a higher shell
the transition generates characteristic x-ray and/or auger electron
equation describing number of undecayed nuclei as a function of time (law of radioactive decay)
N = N0 • e^-λt
N0: number of radioactive nuclei at t=0
N: number of undecayed radioactive nuclei at time of investigation
λ: decay constant
t: time
physical meaning of the radioactive decay constant
radioactive decay constant is equal to the inverse 1st power of the mean lifetime of a radioactive nucleus
relationship between the radioactive decay constant (λ) and the half life (T)
T = ln(2)/λ
ln(2): natural logarithm of 2
biological half life
the time period during which half of the initial quantity of the radioactive isotope leaves the living system undecayed due to metabolism, secretion or excretion
effective half life
time during which the initial activity of a given type of radioactive nucleus decreases to half its original value either by physical decay or metabolism
relationship between effective (T eff), physical (T phys) and biological (T biol) half lives
1/T eff = 1/T phys + 1/T biol
relationship between physical (λ phys), biological (λ biol), and effective (λ eff) decay constants
λ eff = λ phys + λ biol
formula describing attenuation of gamma/x-ray radiation in an absorbing material
J = J0 • e^mew • x
where J0 is the incident intensity, J is the transmitted intensity after passing through the absorber of thickness x, mew is the absorption/attenuation coefficient
attenuation coefficient for gamma/x-ray + the SI unit
the reciprocal of the distance at which the intensity of radiation decreases to 1/e-times (~37%) of the initial value
[mew] = 1/m, where m is the distance
how the intensity of alpha-radiation change as a function of the distance from the source
it is constant in the beginning then suddenly decreases to 0
why alpha & beta(-) radiations called directly ionizing?
they’re charged, so ionization is caused by direct electrostatic interaction with atomic electrons
their energy decreases in a series of ionizations along their path