General Psychology Final Exam Study Guide

Vocabulary flashcards for review.

Psychology

The scientific study of mental processes and behavior, considering the influence of social, cultural, historical, and environmental factors.

Description (Goal of Psychology)

Identifying and observing what is happening in a given situation or behavior.

Explanation (Goal of Psychology)

Developing theories or causes to explain why a behavior is happening.

Prediction (Goal of Psychology)

Determining when a behavior will happen again based on previous observations and explanations.

Control/Change (Goal of Psychology)

Using therapy or interventions to reduce unwanted behaviors and promote positive change.

Psychoanalysis

A school of thought founded by Sigmund Freud that focuses on unconscious motives and childhood experiences.

Behaviorism

A school of thought emphasizing observable behaviors and external stimuli (Watson, Pavlov, Skinner).

Humanism

A school of thought that focuses on personal growth, self-actualization, and free will (Maslow, Rogers).

Cognitive Psychology

A school of thought that examines internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving (Piaget).

Gestalt Psychology

A school of thought emphasizing that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, particularly in perception (Werner, Kohler, Koffka).

Sociocultural Approach

A contemporary approach in psychology that considers the influence of culture and ethnicity on behavior and mental processes.

Multicultural Psychology

The study of the combined influences of culture, ethnicity, and other factors on behavior.

Feminist Psychology

Focuses on social structures and gender-based power differences.

Clinical Psychology

A subfield focused on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders.

Developmental Psychology

A subfield that studies changes across the lifespan.

Cognitive Psychology

A subfield that researches learning, memory, perception, and decision-making.

Biological Psychology/Neuroscience

A subfield that studies brain processes and physiology.

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

A subfield that applies psychological principles to the workplace.

Forensic Psychology

A subfield that applies psychology to legal and criminal issues.

Educational Psychology

A subfield that focuses on learning, teaching, and memory.

Health Psychology

A subfield that examines how biopsychosocial factors affect health.

Empirical Method

Using systematic observation, experimentation, and analysis.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction.

Replicability

The ability to repeat a research study and obtain similar results.

Sensibility

Idea that a hypothesis must be able to be proven right or wrong to be considered a real scientific theory.

Deductive Reasoning

Starts with a general theory, then tests specific hypotheses.

Inductive Reasoning

Starts with observations, then builds a theory.

Cross-Sectional Research

Compares different age groups at a single point in time.

Correlation

Shows a relationship between two variables, but does not prove causation.

Positive Correlation

Both variables move in the same direction (both increase or both decrease).

Negative Correlation

One variable increases while the other decreases.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that the researcher manipulates in an experiment.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured in an experiment; the outcome.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that receives no treatment or receives a placebo.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment.

Random Assignment

Each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group in an experiment.

Double-Blind Study

Neither the participants nor the researchers know group assignments.

Experimenter Bias

Researcher's expectations influence the outcomes of the study.

Informed Consent

Participants must agree to participate and understand the risks involved.

Debriefing

Participants are informed of the study's purpose and any deception used after the study is complete.

Genotype

A person's complete genetic makeup.

Phenotype

Observable characteristics, appearances, and behaviors.

Genes

Segments of DNA that code for traits.

Allele

A version of a gene (dominant or recessive).

Neuron

Brain's messengers.

Soma

Cell body; maintains the health of the neuron.

Dendrites

Receives messages from other neurons.

Synapse

The gap where neurotransmitters are released.

Action Potential

Sudden, brief reversal of charge when a neuron fires.

Resting Potential

The electrical potential of a neuron or other excitable cell relative to its surroundings when not stimulated or involved in passage of an impulse.

Refractory Period

Brief time when a neuron cannot fire again.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter associated with mood and appetite.

Amygdala

Brain area involved in emotion, especially fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

Brain area involved in memory formation.

Corpus Callosum

Band of fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt as a result of experience or damage.

Endocrine System

Series of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by glands into the bloodstream.

Pituitary Gland

Master gland; controls other glands; releases growth hormone and oxytocin.

Adrenal Gland

Releases epinephrine and cortisol for stress response.

Pineal Gland

Releases melatonin, which regulates the sleep-wake cycle.

Gonads

Release sex hormones (testosterone and estrogen).

Melatonin

Hormone released by the pineal gland that induces sleep in response to darkness.

Sleep Stages

Distinct patterns of brain activity and physiological changes that occur during sleep, including slow-wave sleep and REM sleep.

REM Sleep

Rapid Eye Movement; vivid dreams; brain activity resembles wakefulness; body is paralyzed.

Sleep Debt

The cumulative effect of not getting enough sleep, leading to reduced focus, mood disturbances, and health issues.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Sudden sleep attacks, may include cataplexy (sudden muscle weakness).

Hypnosis

A state of heightened suggestibility and focused attention.

Dissociation Theory

Part of consciousness is split off during hypnosis, creating a 'hidden observer'.

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances that alter perceptions, mood, or behavior.

Depressants

Drugs that slow down CNS activity and have a calming effect (alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines).

Stimulants

Drugs that increase alertness, energy, and heart rate (cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine, caffeine).

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter perceptions and cause hallucinations (LSD, marijuana).

Tolerance

Reduced sensitivity to a drug after repeated use, requiring a larger dose to achieve the same effect.

Addiction

Compulsive drug use despite negative consequences and intense cravings.

Craving

Intense desire to use a drug again.

Sensation

Process of receiving, converting, and transmitting information from the external world to the brain.

Perception

Process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to form meaningful experiences.

Signal Detection Theory

Explains how internal (motivation) and external (noise) factors influence our ability to detect a stimulus.

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perception based on incoming sensory information.

Top-Down Processing

Perception guided by experience, knowledge, and expectations.

Selective Attention

Focusing on specific aspects of experience.

Trichromatic Theory

The retina has 3 types of cones (red, green, blue).

Opponent-Process Theory

Cells in the visual system respond to opposite colors (red-green, blue-yellow).

Gestalt Principles

Principles that describe how we organize sensory information into meaningful wholes.

Closure (Gestalt Principle)

Filling in missing information to perceive a complete object.

Continuation (Gestalt Principle)

Perceiving smooth, continuous patterns.

Timbre

Sound variety or complexity.

Gate-Control Theory

The spinal cord contains a 'gate' that controls whether pain signals reach the brain.

Endorphins

The body's natural painkillers.

Kinesthetic Sense

Awareness of body position and movement (joints, muscles).

Vestibular Sense

Sense of balance and spatial orientation (inner ear, semicircular canals, vestibular sacs).

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together.

Classical Conditioning

Learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response (Pavlov).

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A natural response to the UCS (e.g., salivation to food).