Chapter 1

psychology

scientific study of behavior and mental processes

critical thinking

the process of objectively evaluating, comparing, analyzing, and synthesizing information

pseudopsychologies

Rely on nonscientific or deliberately fraudelent methods to explain personality

Psychology's Main Goals

Description (what), Explanation (why), Prediction (when), and Change (how can we improve)

nature-nurture controversy

argues that humans are being controlled by biological and genetic factors versus the idea that they are controlled by their environment and learning

introspection

looking inward to monitor and report on the contents of consciousness (basis for structuralism)

structuralism

Founded by Edward Titchener (student of Wundt). seeks to identify the elements of thought through introspection and then determine how these basic building blocks (structures) form the whole experience

functionalism

strongly influenced by Darwin. Studies how the mind functions to adapt to others in their environment

psychoanalytic approach

Founded by Sigmund Freud. States that the unconscious thoughts and desires greatly influence behavior.

psychodynamic

One of the major psychology perspectives. Remnants of Freudian thoughts. Focuses on unconscious dynamics, internal motives, conflicts, and childhood experiences.

behavioral

One of the major psychology perspectives. Founded by John B Watson. Emphasizes objective, observable environmental influences on overt behavior.

humanistic

One of the major psychology perspectives. Central figures: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Emphasizes free will, self-actualization, and human nature as naturally positive and growth seeking.

cognitive

One of the major psychology perspectives. Focuses on thinking, perceiving, and information processing.

Information-processing Approach

Used by many cognitive psychologists. Likens the mind to a computer that sequentially takes in information, processes it, and then produces reponse

biological

One of the major psychology perspectives. Emphasizes genetics and biological processes in the brain and other parts of the nervous system.

evolutionary

One of the major psychology perspectives. Focuses on natural selection, adaptation, and evolution of behavior and mental processes.

sociocultural

One of the major psychology perspectives. Emphasizes social interaction and cultural determinants of behavior and mental processes

biopsychosocial model

Most widely accepted approach, views bilogical processes, psychological factors, and social forces as interrelated influences that interact with the seven major perspectives.

basic research

Research conducted to advance scientific knowledge

applied research

Research designed to solve practical problems

meta-analysis

averaging or combining the results of multiple studies to reach conclusions from the overall weight of evidence. Done when different studies report contradictory findings.

theory

Systematic, interrelated set of concepts that explain a body of data

informed consent

APA guideline regarding human participants that says the participant must agree to take part in the study after being told what to expect

debriefing

After completion of experiment, explaining the reason for conducting the research and clearing up and misconceptions, questions, or concerns

experimental research

Most powerful research method. Allows experiments to manipulate, isolate, and control variables and determine cause and effect.

variables

the factors in an experiment. Can be independent (manipulated), dependent (measured and is affected by the independent), or extraneous (others that could affect study's outcome)

experimenter bias

Occurs when researcher influences reserach results in the expected direction

single-blind study

Only the researcher, and not the participants, knows who is in either the experiemental or control group

double-blind study

Both the researcher and the participants are unaware (blind) of who is in the experiemental or control group

ethnocentrism

Believing one's culture is typical of all cultures and viewing their own as central and correct.

placebo

Inactive substance or fake treatment used as a control technique, usually in drug research, or given to a patient

placebo effect

When patients ar egiven a placebo and have a percieved or actual improvement in a medical condition

sample bias

Occurs when research paricipants are not representtive of the larger population

Random Assignment

Using chance methods to assign participants to experimental or control conditions to avoid extraneous variables

participant bias

Occurs when experiemtnal conditions influence the participant's behavior or mental processes

Descriptive Research

Research methods that observe and record behavior and mental processe without producing causal explanations

Naturalistic Observation

Type of descriptive research where observation and recording behavior is done in the participant's natural state or habitat

survey

Type of descriptive research where a large sample of people are questioned to asses their behaviors and attitudes

case study

Type of descriptive research where an in-depth study is done on a single participant

correlational research

Research method in which variables are observed or measured (without directly manipulatin) to identify relationships between them. (does NOT imply causation)

Biological Research

Scientific studes of the brain and other part sof the nervous system

cultural universals

The aspects of human behavior and mental processes that are true and pancultural/universal for all people.

they both have their own form of psychotherapy

What do the psychoanalytic and humanistic perspectives have in common?

cognitive psychologist

Examines “higher” mental processes, including thought, memory, intelligence, creativity, and language

clinical psychologist

Specializes in the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders

counseling psychologist

Overlaps with clinical psychology, but generally works with less seriously disordered individuals and focuses more on social, educational, and career adjustment

neuroscientist

Investigates the relationship between biology, behavior, and mental processes, including how physical and chemical processes affect the structure and function of the brain and nervous system

It failed as a method to study complex mental disorders in humans or animals.

Why did structuralism fail as a working psychological learning approach?

replication

Scientific confidence in a study's findings can be increased through the process of

statistical significance

the difference between the groups must be large enough that the result is probably not due to chance

archival research

Research where researchers study previously recorded data

confounding variable

an outside factor in a study that links to both the independent variable (the cause) and the dependent variable (the effect)

control group

participants who do NOT receive the treatment under study

correlation coefficient

a statistical number between -1.0 and +1.0 that measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables

dependent variable (DV)

the variable you plan to measure and examine for possible change

descriptive research

a non-experimental method used to systematically observe, measure, and describe behavior or mental processes without manipulating any variables

growth mindset

the self-perception that one's abilities can change and improve with effort

hypothesis

a specific, testable prediction about the expected outcome or relationship between variables in a research study

SQ4R method

an active reading and study strategy designed to improve comprehension and retention: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review, and wRite

independent variable (IV)

the factor, or variable, you manipulate (or change)

Wilhelm Wundt

is generally acknowledged to be the father of psychology

description; prediction

The goal of ______ is to tell what occurred, whereas the goal of ______ is to tell when.

overlearn

this is particularly important if you suffer from test anxiety

practice test taking and distributed practice

two of the most efficient ways to study and thereby improve your grades