APES Unit 2

divergent plate boundary

plates move away from each other

tranform fault boundaries

area where tectonic plates move sideways past each other

seafloor spreading

formation of new ocean crust as result of magma pushing up and out of mantle to surface

convergent plate boundaries

an area where plates move toward one another and collide

subduction zone

type of convergent boundary, one plate sinks into mantle under the other

hot spots

place where molten material from earths mantle reaches lithosphere

fault

fracture in rock caused by movements of earth’s crust

fault zone

expanse of rock where fault has occurred

seismic activity

frequency and intensity of earthquakes experience over time

epicenter

exact center of earthquakes, point on surface directly above rupture location during earthquake

physical weathering

mechanical breakdown

chemical weathering

break down by chemical reaction, dissolving of chemical elements from rocks, or both

biological weathering

breakdown by exertion of physical forces and chemical reactions by a biological organism

erosion

physical removal of soil from a landscape or ecosystem

abiotic erosion

wind, water, ice move materials downslope

biotic erosion

living organisms borrow under soil

deposition

process by which sediments/soil is added to a landform/landmass

soil permeability 

ability of water and air to move through a soil

soil provision eco service

agriculture

soil culture eco service

natural spaces, tourism, spiritual connection

soil supporting eco service

habitat, nutrient cycling

soil regulating eco service

filters pollutants, carbon sink

climate influence on soil formation

temperature, precipitation, tropical—> more soil, organisms live in different climates

organisms influence on soil formation

more organisms—> more soil

topography influence on soil formation 

gravity, natural and physical features of area

percent material/rock influence on soil formation

rock material from which inorganic components of soil are derived

time influence on soil formation

how long soil has been developing

O horizon

organic horizon at surface, composed of organic detritus in various stages of decomposition, not soil

A horizon

frequently top layer of soil, where organic material and minerals that have been mixed “top soil” —> habitat

E Horizon 

leaching/eluviation layer, in some acidic soils on o or occasionally a horizon 

B horizon

final nutrient recevoir ,mainly mineral material, little organic matter, metals and nutrient

C horizon

least weathered, under b, similar to parent material-”bedrock”

soil permeability ranking most to least

sand, silt, clay

water logging

water moves through to a point then is stuck, not entering leaching layer —not enough oxygen, limited gas exchange, anaerobic conditions, wood starts to rot

micro nutrients 

CA2+ calcium, Mg2+ magnesium, NA+ sodium

macro nutrients

nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium

cation exchange capacity

The ability of a particular soil to absorb and release cations

base saturation

The percentage of total CEC is occupied by Mg2+, Ca2+ and K+ (nutrient cations) compared to H+ and Al3+; higher base saturation → higher fertility

salinization

when salts in ground water remain in soil after water evaporates

ore

concentrated accumulation of minerals from which economically valuable materials can be extracted

metal

element with properties that allow it to conduct electricity and heat energy and to perform other important functions (tungsten, aluminum)

reserve 

in resource management, the known quantity of a resource that can be economically recovered

placer mining

The process of looking for minerals, metals, and precious stones in river sediments—most eco friendly and safe—surface mining

strip mining

The removal of strips of soil and rock to expose ore such as coal—habitat destruction—surface mining

open pit mining

mining technique that uses a large visible pit or hole in the ground, blows up area, softens and moves soil which is sent off as waste, uses explosives, surface mining

mountain top removal

A mining technique in which the entire top of a mountain is removed with explosives

subsurface mining

used when source is over 100m/328 ft below surface, very dangerous, uses drills, expensive, often spill hurts people as well as chemicals, air quality, etc —under surface

tailing

man made pond with disturbed soil, chemicals used to clean ores before refinery, waste water and gasoline from mining

overburden 

rock or soil underlying a mineral deposit, or other underground feature

acid mine drainage

the outflow of acidic water from metal mines or coal mines

reclamation

the process of restoring land that has been mined to a natural or economically usable state

lithosphere

outermost layer of earth, crust and mantle (has magma)

asthenosphere

outer part of mantle, semi molten rock

lava

when magma interacts with oxygen

core

innermost zone of crust interior, has liquid outlier and solid inner layer, nickel and iron

evidence for alfred wagner tectonics theory

fossil distribution, rock formation both across different or distant countries

aquifer

permeable layer of rock and sediment that contains groundwater-not an underground river/lake

unconfined aquifer

made of porous rock covered by soil out of which water can easily flow in and out of

confined aquifer

surrounded by layer of impermeable rock or clay that impedes water, water doesn't flow in or out, pollution is much more deadly

water table

uppermost level at which water in a given area fully saturates rock or soil

groundwater recharge

press by which water percolates through soil and work its way into an aquifer

spring

natural source of water formed when water from an aquifer percolates up to the ground surface 

watershed

all land in a given landscape that drains into a particular stream, lake, river, or wetland and eventually to outflow points like reservoirs, bays, and oceans

protolith

original rock

ogallala aquifer/high plains aquifer

largest in us, competition of water

cone of depression

area lacking groundwater due to rapid withdrawal by a well, can cause nearby shallow wells to go dry

saltwater intrusion

infiltration of salt in an area where groundwater has been reduced from extensive draining of wells

subsidence

gradual carving in or shrinking of an area of land

flood plain

land next to river

levee

enlarged bank built up on each side of a river

dike

barriers that run across a river or stream to control the flow of water

dam

barrier that runs across a river or stream to control the flow of water, often used to generate green electricity, and forms a resevoir

reservoir

water body created by damming a river or stream

aqueduct

canal or ditch used to carry water from one location to another

distillation

process of desalination in which water is boiled and the resulting steam is captured and condense to form pure water—uses lots of gasoline and fossils fuels, and expensive tools

reverse osmosis 

process of desalination in which eater is forced through a think semipermeable membrane at high pressure, can harm organisms 

irrigation

supply of water to land or crops to help growth, typically by means o channels and is the greatest consumer of freshwater globally

furrow irrigation

-trench flooded with water

-oldest technique

-65% effective, some over watering

-no fossil fuels

-uses gravity

flood irrigation 

-entire field flooded with water

-more disruptive than furrow

-70-80% efficient

-no fossils fuels

-uses gravity

spray irrigation

-apparatus sprays water across a field

-more expansive than furrow or flood

-75-95% efficient

-sprays top of plants, rather than below

-fossil fuels

drip irrigation

-slow dripping hose is laid on or buried beneath soil

-most sustainable

-most efficient

-helps control weed population (less fertilizer)

-very expensive

hydroponic

-cultivation of plants in greenhouse conditions by immersing roots in a nutrient rich solution

-closest to 100% efficiency

-most expensive

-little to no pesticide use

-up to 95% less water than traditional irrigation, doesn’t need constant refilling

-year round growth

-nutrient year round

house hold per capita water use per day

amount of household water use per capital is different from that of total water use

gray water

Wastewater from baths, showers, bathrooms, and washing machines

water conservation strategies

-using more efficient water fixtures

-planting native vegetation that requires less watering

-Creating more efficient industrial processes and machines. 

-Recycling rain or gray water

adiabatic cooling

The cooling effect of reduced pressure on air as it rises higher in the atmosphere and expands.

adiabatic heating

The heating effect of increased pressure on air as it sinks toward the surface of Earth and decreases in volume

thermohaline circulation 

An oceanic circulation pattern that drives the mixing of surface water and deep water based on changes in the density of seawater, which is affected by temperature and salinity 

trade winds

-winds that blow toward the Equator, from northeast to southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from southeast to northwest in the Southern Hemisphere

-deflected east by coriolis effect

westerlies

-winds blowing from the west across the mid-latitudes

-deflected west by coriolis