Lecture 7 (Epic of Gilgamesh)

What is the epic theme about?

Heroic quest for fame and immortality

key detail about the work itself

longest and greatest literary composition written in cuneiform Akkadian

overall impression of the myth

free will of man which can fashion its own destiny and occasionally thwart the wishes of heaven

Purpose of the myth

most likely for entertainment; no evidence of performance in ceremony or ritual

What city was Gilgamesh believed to rule

Uruk

2 Paternal lineages for Gilgamesh

Lillu (ghost/demon-like man), High Priest of Kullab (part of the city of Uruk)

OR Lugalbanda

Mother of Gilgamesh

Goddess Ninsun; Lady Wild Cow

Main Gods of Uruk

Ishtar (Inanna) and An (Anu)

In Sumerian, the 3 groups of short tales

Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, Gilgamesh

Commonalities in all versions of the epic

Gilgamesh is present, first half is search for fame, second half is the quest for immortality, main 11 tablets are introduced by a prologue which is repeated as epilogue, 3 dreams used to heighten tension (Gilgamesh in tablet I and IV, Enkidu in tablet VII)

Ninevah copy from 7th BCE

written down by Sin-lege master scribe of Kassite period; surge of literature but story already 800 years old when copied

Parallels

traditional tales reused and adapted for different ethnic and geographic settings; Arabian Nights and Odysseus & Calpyso

Arabian Nights - Tale of Buluqiya

Occurs in pre-Islamic times during Greek Scholars; Buluqiya is hypocoristic form of Gilgamesh; stories are extremely similar, not a coincidence

Odysseus and Calypso

Much like Gilgamesh and Siduri; lone female plies inconsolable hero wandered with drink and sends him to a place beyond the sea reserved for special honored people

Prologue

About Uruk (its pretty); Summarizes story and talks about finding a tablet with the story of Gilgamesh

Prologue tablet importance

Kiln-fired brick and Lapis lazuli tablet shows fortune and rarity

Tablet 1: Description of Gilgamesh

Wild, tall, big, a protector, full of himself, bullies men and harasses women

Goring wild bull

if an ox gores someone to death while passing through the streets, case has no basis for a claim

Goring wild bull upperclass vs slave

if a man’s ox is a known gorere but does not blunt or control it, and it gores an upperclass person, owner pays 30 shekels of silver; for slave its 20 shekels

Strong net, protection of his men

Eannatum vulture stela showing net of god Ningirsu; often heroes capture enemies in nets of their gods

Gilgamesh walked about Uruk

full of himself, total bully with no rival

At Gilgamesh’s pukku, his weapons

would rise and his comrades had to do the same

Pukku and mekku

hockey type of game played at weddings

Men of Uruk are always

depressed because Gilgamesh always starts fights and steals their women

Young women of Uruk are depressed because

Gilgamesh always harrasing and claiming them before they marry

Anu heard the complaints of Uruk, they asked for

a rival to be made by mother goddess Aruru to bring peace

Goddess Aruru then

creates insider herself the word of Anu,

Pun: Zikru in Akkadian is man

Pinched off a piece of clay and threw it into the country

Aruru made a primitive man named

Enkidu

Enkidu is a

bull man who hangs out with the animals in the pastures, made of the word of An, the sky-bolt of Nunurta/An, and an axe; very hairy, wild, and uncivilized

Enkidu saved animals from

a hunter trap and the angry hunter tells his father who suggests to go to Uruk to get a prostitute to take the man beast

Gilgamesh tells hunter to take

Shamhat the harlot to seduce him and change his mind

Shamhat means

voluptuous woman, her job is unknown

possible cultic priestess or devotee of Ishtar

Hunter and Shamaht travel to the countryside where

they wait for Enkidu; seeing a naked woman will cause him to forget animals and know he is a man

Enkidu sees Shamhat

he immediately goes for her

Pun: he “lay upon (over) her open country/back

the word seru means “open country” and “back”

Gilgamesh has a dream of Enkidu

he tells his a mother about a dream where the sky-bolt of An (Enkidu) fell on him and he could not lift it

the men and him loved it and placed it at is his side

Ahu means both

side and brother

Gilgamesh dreams about the sky-bolt and his love

3 times

Tablet 1 ends with Gilgamesh declaring

he will gain a friend to advise him

When Shamhat tells the dream to Enkidu she says that you will love one another to him

Who brings Enkidu to Uruk, and why?

Shamhat brings Enkidu to Uruk to fully “civilize” him and introduce him into human society.

How do the people of Uruk react to Enkidu?

They feed him, admire him, and see him as an equal match for Gilgamesh.

What abusive royal custom makes Enkidu angry in Uruk?

Gilgamesh’s right to sleep with brides before their husbands.

What does Enkidu do about Gilgamesh’s wedding-night privilege?

He physically blocks Gilgamesh from entering the bridal chamber, and they fight.

How does the fight between Gilgamesh and Enkidu end?

They recognize each other’s strength and become close friends instead of enemies.

Who is Humbaba, and who appoints him?

Humbaba is the terrifying guardian of the cedar forest, appointed by Enlil.

What are Humbaba’s supernatural traits?

His utterances are fire, his breath is death, and his shout is like a flood-weapon; he can hear 60 leagues away.

Where is the cedar forest located in the Sumerian vs. Akkadian traditions?

Sumerian: Iran; Akkadian epic: Lebanon.

What real-life thing does the cedar forest represent?

Distant, valuable timber resources that Mesopotamians imported.

Why does Gilgamesh want to fight Humbaba?

To gain fame and prove his strength by conquering a terrifying, divinely appointed guardian.

How do the elders initially respond to Gilgamesh’s plan to fight Humbaba?

They warn him he is too arrogant and not strong enough.

What compromise do the elders make about the journey?

They let him go but insist Enkidu should lead and make decisions in danger.

Who is Ninsun and what does she do before the journey?

Ninsun is Gilgamesh’s mother; she prays to Shamash for protection and adopts Enkidu as a son.

Which god loves Humbaba and which god hates him?

Enlil loves and appointed Humbaba; Shamash hates him and supports Gilgamesh.

What does Ninsun’s adoption of Enkidu symbolize?

It formally makes Enkidu family and tightens the bond between him and Gilgamesh.

What happens to Gilgamesh during the journey to the cedar forest?

He has three frightening dreams.

How does Enkidu handle Gilgamesh’s dreams?

He reinterprets them positively to encourage Gilgamesh.

What do “dreams in threes” reflect about Mesopotamian belief?

They thought important omens came in sets of three and needed confirmation.

What real-life practice is echoed by the dream scenes?

Professional dream interpretation and ritual instructions for receiving messages from gods.

How does Enkidu’s emotional role change on the journey?

He becomes Gilgamesh’s moral support and guide, calming his fears.

What happens when Gilgamesh and Enkidu arrive in the cedar forest?

Their presence and tree-cutting alert Humbaba, who confronts them.

How does Gilgamesh react when Humbaba appears?

He becomes afraid and goes aside to pray to Shamash.

How does Shamash help in the battle with Humbaba?

Shamash gives Gilgamesh strength and encourages him to kill Humbaba.

What deal does Humbaba offer to avoid death?

He promises to serve Gilgamesh and give him the best trees of the forest.

Why does Enkidu urge Gilgamesh not to accept Humbaba’s offer?

Enkidu fears Enlil’s anger and insists Humbaba must be killed quickly.

What crucial curse does Humbaba pronounce before he dies?

He curses Gilgamesh and Enkidu to die young.

What do Gilgamesh and Enkidu do with the cedar wood after killing Humbaba?

They cut many trees, build a huge door, and send the logs down the Euphrates to Nippur, carrying Humbaba’s head.

What does sending timber to Nippur show about the myth’s setting?

It links the story to real Mesopotamian trade and to the cult center of Enlil.

What does the Humbaba story explain in cultural terms?

explains the moral cost of exploiting sacred natural resources and killing a divine guardian for fame.

How is the cedar forest described in the expanded version?

As a beautiful, musical place whose “symphony” delights Humbaba.

What is Enkidu’s personal connection to the cedar forest in later tradition?

He spent time there in his youth and feels like he has “come home.”

What do Gilgamesh and Enkidu realize after killing Humbaba?

They understand they have done something wrong to a loyal servant of Enlil.

Who notices Gilgamesh when he returns to Uruk cleaned up?

The goddess Ishtar.

What does Ishtar offer Gilgamesh?

Love, riches, honors, and divine protection if he becomes her lover.

Why does Gilgamesh reject Ishtar’s proposal?

He lists how she has treated previous lovers badly and refuses to risk the same fate.

How does Ishtar react to Gilgamesh’s refusal?

She complains to her father Anu and demands the Bull of Heaven to punish him.

What threat does Ishtar make if Anu refuses her the bull?

She threatens to unleash the dead (zombies) upon the living.

What happens when the Bull of Heaven attacks?

Its snorts open ravines that kill hundreds of men; Enkidu falls in and escapes, then helps kill it.

How do Gilgamesh and Enkidu insult Ishtar after killing the bull?

Enkidu throws the bull’s thigh/shoulder at her face, and Gilgamesh keeps the horns as a trophy.

What does the Bull of Heaven episode represent symbolically?

It represents divine punishment (possibly famine or disaster) and shows the heroes’ extreme hubris.

In Enkidu’s dream, what do the gods decide?

They decide one hero must die for killing Humbaba and the bull, and Enlil chooses Enkidu.

How does Shamash respond to this decision?

Shamash tries to defend the heroes but is overruled by Enlil.

How does Enkidu react to knowing he will die?

He weeps and laments being separated from Gilgamesh.

Why does Enkidu curse the hunter and Shamhat?

He blames them for bringing him from the wild into a life that ends in punishment and death.

How is Enkidu persuaded to retract his curse on Shamhat?

Shamash reminds him that Shamhat fed him, clothed him, and led him to Gilgamesh and fame, so he blesses her instead.

What does Enkidu’s underworld dream show about Mesopotamian ideas of death?

The underworld is dark, dusty, and joyless, where all eat dust and clay, regardless of status.

What happens to Enkidu’s health after his dream?

He falls ill; each day he grows weaker while Gilgamesh watches in distress.

How does Tablet 8 describe Enkidu’s origins?

As a wild bovid child: mother a gazelle, father a wild donkey, suckled by onagers.

Who does Gilgamesh say will mourn Enkidu?

Not only the people of Uruk but also the animals and the natural world.

What does Gilgamesh feel he has lost with Enkidu’s death?

His courage and “manly” status, symbolized by weapons, clothes, and sash.

What does Gilgamesh do when he realizes Enkidu is truly dead?

He calls craftsmen to make a statue of Enkidu from precious metals to stand by his tomb.

Why does Gilgamesh prepare burial goods and sacrifices for Enkidu?

To honour him and to ensure the underworld gods welcome and protect him.

What does Enkidu’s funeral explain about Mesopotamian beliefs?

That proper burial, offerings, and ongoing ritual care could ease a dead person’s fate in the underworld.

What big shift in the epic is triggered by Enkidu’s death?

Gilgamesh’s fear of his own mortality and his later quest for eternal life.

How does Tablet 9 begin

Gilgamesh mourning and roaming the open country, restless dead and ghosts are nearby too, he decides to go find Ut-napishtim

What mountain does Gilgamesh arrive to

Mashu which guard the daily rise of Shamash from the Underworld

Who was guarding the gate at Mashu

Scorpion men with frightful aura and mantles of radiance guarding the sun at dawn at dusk

What does scared Gilgamesh tell the Scorpion man

he is searching for eternal life and must find Ut-napishtim in the mountains

Where is Gilgamesh when the story picks up after?

In the middle of a long, pitch-black tunnel through the mountains, unable to see ahead or behind.

How long is the tunnel journey, and what is emphasized about it?

He travels ten leagues in total; at each league the text repeats how complete the darkness is (stressing how hard and liminal the journey is).

What happens when Gilgamesh finally leaves the tunnel?

He emerges into brilliant sunlight into a fantastical garden of precious stone “vegetation.”

What is special about the landscape outside the tunnel?

Bushes and trees are described as thorny and spiky but blossoming with gemstones (carnelian fruit, lapis lazuli foliage, other stones).