The Enlightenment

What was the Enlightenment?

A European movement (1650-1800) focused on reason, freedom, science, and human rights, challenging monarchy, church authority, and traditions.

What new social spaces helped spread Englightenment ideas?

• Coffeehouses

• Literary salons

• Scientific academies

• Freemasonry lodges

• Open debates among middle-class citizens.

What was Freemasonry and why was it important?

Secret societies promoting morality, brotherhood, charity, and reason, combining people from different regions and social classes.

How did print culture change during the Enlightenment?

• Shift from oral traditions to reading culture

• Rise of newspapers, journals, novels, and pamphlets

• Focused on secular entertainment and information

What was the Encyclopedia (1751-1772)?

• 17-volume encyclopedia edited by Diderot and d’Alembert.

• Aimed to spread knowledge, attack superstition, and promote liberty.

• Banned in France; printed secretly in Switzerland.

What were popular new commodities during the Enlightenment?

• Coffee: Spread from Ottoman Empire to Europe

• Sugar: Became Europe’s top import by 1750.

• Tea: Popularized in Britain by the East India Company.

• Tobacco: Grew colonial economies using enslaved labor.

• Chocholate (Cacao): Imported from the Americas and became a popular drink.

What were Montesquieu’s key ideas in The Spirit of the Laws (1748)?

• Advocated seperation of powers: executive, legislative, judical.

• Opposed slavery and supported freedom of speech and fair trials

• Influenced the American Constitution and French Revolution.

What did Rousseau argue in The Social Contract (1762)?

• Government must follow the general will of the people

• Everyone gives up some rights equally to live freely

• People have the right to overthrow governments that violate the social contract

What did Rousseau say about inequality in Discouse of Inequality (1755)?

He believed moral inequality (wealth, power) came from civil society, not nature.

How did Rousseau influence history?

His ideas inspired radical democracy during the French Revolution, but also justified extreme measures like the Reign of Terror.

What were Voltaire’s main beliefs?

• Supported religious tolerance

• Criticized Christian fanaticism

• Advocated reason and deism (belief in a rational creator)

What is Candide (1759) about?

A satirical novel attacking blind optimism and questioning why evil exists if God is goods.

What were Helvetius’s main ideas?

• Education shapes character

• Environment and history explain genius, morality, and happiness.

• Believed in materialism (no sould or divine destiny)

What did Beccaria argue in On Crimes and Punishments (1764)?

• Torture is useless and unjust

• Death penalty should be abolished

• Laws must protect individual rights and fairness

What economic ideas did Adam Smith propose in The Wealth of Nations (1776)?

• Division of labor increases efficiency (ex: pin factory)

• Markets work through the “invisible hand” of supply and demand

• Promoted free trade over mercantilism

What did Immanuel Kant mean by Enlightenment?

• “Dare to be Wise!” (Sapere aude!)

• Use your own reason without relying on authorities

• Emphasized freedom of religion, speech, and press

What is Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (1781) about?

It tried to resolve conflicts between rationalists (reason) and empiricists (experience), showing the limits of human knowledge.

What was Kant’s vision of world peace in Perpetual Peace (1795)?

• No secret treaties or standing armies

• Respect national sovereignty

• Democracies are less likely to go to war with each other

• Inspired ideas from the League of Nations and later the United Nations

How did commodities like coffee and sugar affect society?

They changed daily habits, boosted global trade, and increased colonial plantations dependent on slavery.