Physics Foundations and Reference Handbook

Flashcards compiled from the Expanded Edition of the Physics Foundations Reference Guide and Reference Handbook covering fundamental and advanced physics concepts, units, and formulas.

MKS System

A standard measurement framework in physics based on the units Meter, Kilogram, and Second, establishing the modern foundation for SI parameters.

CGS System

An alternate measurement framework used in laboratory settings or specific electromagnetic domains based on Centimeter, Gram, and Second.

Newton (N)

The MKS / SI unit of Force ($F$), where $1 N = 1 kg \times 1 m/s^{2}$, equivalent to $10^{5}$ dynes.

Dyne (dyn)

The CGS unit of Force ($F$), defined as $1 g \times 1 cm/s^{2}$.

Joule (J)

The MKS / SI unit of Work or Energy, defined as $1 N \times m$, equivalent to $10^{7}$ ergs.

Pascal (Pa)

The MKS / SI unit of Pressure ($P$), defined as $1 N/m^{2}$, equivalent to $10$ Barye.

Giga (G)

A metric prefix with a scientific multiplier of $10^{9}$, often applied to Electromagnetic Wave Frequencies.

Nano (n)

A metric prefix with a scientific multiplier of $10^{-9}$, often applied to Visible Light Optical Wavelengths.

Acceleration due to Gravity (g)

A foundational physics constant approximately equal to $9.8 m/s^{2}$ in MKS or $980 cm/s^{2}$ in CGS.

Universal Gravitational Constant (G)

A constant approximately equal to $6.67 \times 10^{-11} N \times m^{2}/kg^{2}$.

Linear Velocity

The rate of change of displacement of an object with respect to time, with dimensions of $[M^{0} L T^{-1}]$.

Force (Newton's Second Law)

An external agent capable of changing the state of rest or motion of a body, directly proportional to the rate of change of its linear momentum ($F = m \times a$).

Impulse (J)

The total effect of a large force acting on a body for a short time interval ($J = F \times \triangle t$), equivalent to the change in linear momentum.

Work Done (W)

The measure of energy transfer occurring when an object is displaced by an external force acting along the direction of displacement ($W = F \times d \times \text{cos}(\theta)$).

Mechanical Power (P)

The time rate at which mechanical work is performed or energy is transformed ($P = W / t$).

Torque (Moment of Force)

The turning or twisting effectiveness of a force applied to a rigid body about a specific axis of rotation ($\tau = F \times r \times \text{sin}(\theta)$).

Angular Velocity

The rate of change of angular displacement ($\theta$) of a particle moving along a circular path with respect to time (\text{\textomega} = \theta / t).

Moment of Inertia (I)

A measure of a body's resistance to angular acceleration about a specified rotational axis, dependent on mass distribution (I = \text{\textSigma}(m_{i} \times r_{i}^{2})).

Escape Velocity

The minimum speed required for a non-propelled body to permanently escape the gravitational influence of a massive body, calculated as v_{e} = \text{\textsqrt}(2 \times G \times M / R).

Hydrostatic Pressure

The downward pressure exerted by a static fluid at a specific depth due to gravity acting on the fluid column (P = \text{\textrho} \times g \times h).

Buoyant Force (Archimedes)

The upward net vertical force exerted by a fluid on a submerged object, equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.

Young's Modulus (Y)

A measure of stiffness representing the ratio of tensile stress ($F/A$) to tensile strain ($\triangle L/L$) within the elastic limit ($Y = (F \times L) / (A \times \triangle L)$).

Surface Tension (T)

The cohesive force per unit length acting along the surface of a liquid ($T = F / L$) that makes it behave like a stretched membrane.

Coefficient of Viscosity

A measure of a fluid's internal resistance to flow under applied tangential force ($ ext{ exteta} = (F imes d) / (A imes v)$).

Equation of Continuity

A principle of fluid dynamics stating that the product of pipe cross-sectional area and local velocity remains constant ($A_{1} \times v_{1} = A_{2} \times v_{2}$).

Reynolds Number (Re)

A dimensionless parameter used to assert whether a fluid flow pattern is laminar or turbulent (\text{Re} = (\text{\textrho} \times v \times d) / \text{\texteta}).

Coulomb's Law

A law describing the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between stationary point charges (F = [1 / (4 \times \text{\textpi} \times \text{\textepsilon}_{0})] \times [q_{1} \times q_{2} / r^{2}]).

Ideal Gas Law

An equation of state describing the relationship between pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles ($P \times V = n \times R \times T$).

Stefan-Boltzmann Law

States that the total radiant energy emitted per unit surface area of a blackbody per unit time is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature (E = \text{\textsigma} \times T^{4}).

Absolute Refractive Index (n)

The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum ($c$) to its speed in a given material medium ($v$).

Snell's Law of Refraction

Relates the angles of incidence and refraction for light traveling between two media ($n_{1} \times \text{sin}(\theta_{1}) = n_{2} \times \text{sin}(\theta_{2})$).

Brewster's Law

States that reflected light is completely plane-polarized when unpolarized light hits a transparent surface at the polarizing angle ($n = \text{tan}(\theta_{p})$).

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

States it is physically impossible to simultaneously determine the exact position and linear momentum of a particle (\triangle x \times \triangle p \text{\textge} h / (4 \times \text{\textpi})).

Radioactive Decay Law

States that the rate of disintegration of a radioactive sample is directly proportional to the total number of active nuclei (N_{t} = N_{0} \times e^{-\text{\textlambda} \times t}).

Hubble's Law

States that the recessional velocity of a distant galaxy is directly proportional to its distance from the observer ($v = H_{0} \times d$).

Schwarzschild Radius ($R_{s}$)

The radius defining the event horizon of a black hole where escape velocity equals the speed of light ($R_{s} = 2 \times G \times M / c^{2}$).

Ohm's Law

Fundamental circuit law stating that current is directly proportional to voltage under constant physical conditions ($V = I \times R$).

Drift Velocity ($v_{d}$)

The average velocity attained by charged particles in a material due to an electric field ($v_{d} = I / (n \times A \times q)$).

Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction

States that a changing magnetic flux through a conducting loop induces an electromotive force (\text{\textepsilon} = -N \times (\triangle \text{\textPhi}_{B} / \triangle t)).

RMS Voltage ($V_{\text{rms}}$)

The effective value of an alternating voltage that produces the same heating effect as direct voltage (V_{\text{rms}} = V_{0} / \text{\textsqrt}(2)).

Stress ( ext{ extsigma})

The internal restoring force per unit area developed within a body subjected to deforming force (\text{\textsigma} = F / A).

Strain ( ext{ extepsilon})

The fractional or relative deformation produced in a body as a result of applied stress; it is a dimensionless quantity.

Planck's Equation

Relates the energy of a photon to its frequency ($E = h \times f$).

De Broglie Wavelength

The wavelength associated with a moving material particle, establishing wave-particle duality (\text{\textlambda} = h / p).

Coulomb Potential Energy (U)

Electrical potential energy stored in a system of two point charges (U = [1 / (4 \times \text{\textpi} \times \text{\textepsilon}_{0})] \times [q_{1} \times q_{2} / r]).

Ampere's Law

States that the line integral of the magnetic field along an arbitrary closed loop equals the permeability times the enclosed current (\text{\textoint} \text{B} \times \text{ds} = \text{\textmu}_{0} \times I_{\text{enclosed}}).

Inductive Reactance ($X_{L}$)

The opposition offered by an inductor to the flow of AC, which increases linearly with frequency (X_{L} = 2 \times \text{\textpi} \times f \times L).

Capacitive Reactance ($X_{C}$)

The opposition offered by a capacitor to the flow of AC, which is inversely proportional to frequency and capacitance (X_{C} = 1 / (2 \times \text{\textpi} \times f \times C)).

Impedance (Z)

The total comprehensive vector opposition to the flow of AC in a circuit containing resistance and reactance (Z = \text{\textsqrt}[R^{2} + (X_{L} - X_{C})^{2}]).

Diffraction

The bending or spreading of waves around edges of an obstacle or through a narrow aperture (d \times \text{sin}(\theta) = m \times \text{\textlambda}).

Work-Energy Theorem

States that the net work done by all forces acting on a body is equal to the change in its kinetic energy ($W_{\text{net}} = \triangle \text{K}$).

Kepler's Third Law

States that the square of the orbital period of a planet ($T^{2}$) is directly proportional to the cube of the orbital radius ($r^{3}$).

Entropy Change ( ext{ extDelta}S)

A measurement of molecular disorder during a reversible thermal process (\text{\textDelta}S = \text{\textDelta}Q / T).

Bohr's Frequency Condition

Postulate stating an electron transitions by absorbing/emitting a photon whose energy equals the difference between orbital energy levels (\text{\textDelta}E = h \times f).

Intrinsic Semiconductor

A pure semiconductor crystal whose conductivity is determined solely by thermal excitation properties ($n = p = n_{i}$).

Depletion Region

A thin, highly resistive boundary layer in a pn-junction cleared of mobile charge carriers due to initial recombination.

Forward Biasing

Circuit configuration where the positive terminal is connected to the p-side and negative to the n-side, allowing current flow.

Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

A high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with two high-impedance differential inputs and one low-impedance output.

NAND Gate

A universal digital logic gate providing an output of $0$ only when all inputs are $1$; acts as an inverted AND gate (Y = \text{\textoverline{A \times B}}).

Relativistic Mass Increase

Phenomenon where an object's inertial resistance increases exponentially as velocity approaches the speed of light (m = \text{\textgamma} \times m_{0}).