Key Terms and Concepts in Research Methods for Psychology

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that the outcome was predictable all along.

Confirmation Bias

Favoring information that confirms existing beliefs and ignoring contradictory evidence.

Overconfidence

Overestimating the accuracy of our knowledge or abilities.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Operational Definitions

Clear, precise definitions of variables so they can be measured or manipulated.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable the experimenter manipulates.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable measured, affected by the IV.

Confounding Variables

Extra variables that may affect the DV besides the IV.

Sample & Population

Population: Entire group researchers want to study. Sample: Subset actually studied.

Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance to be in the sample.

Random Assignment

Placing participants into experimental/control groups by chance to minimize bias.

Experimental Group vs Control Group

Experimental Group: Receives IV manipulation. Control Group: Does not; serves as baseline.

Placebo Effect

Changes in participants due to expectations, not treatment.

Double-Blind Study

Neither participants nor experimenters know group assignments.

Example of Hindsight Bias

Saying 'I knew it all along' after the event happens.

Clue for Hindsight Bias

'I knew it was coming.'

Caution for Hindsight Bias

Can distort memory of past predictions.

Difference of Hindsight Bias

Differs from actual prediction made before outcome.

Related Concepts to Hindsight Bias

Confirmation bias, overconfidence.

Application of Hindsight Bias

Be skeptical of 'I knew it' stories.

Example of Confirmation Bias

Reading only news articles that support your views.

Clue for Confirmation Bias

'Seeing only what confirms me.'

Caution for Confirmation Bias

Limits perspective and objective analysis.

Related Concepts to Confirmation Bias

Hindsight bias.

Application of Confirmation Bias

Actively seek challenges to your beliefs.

Example of Overconfidence

Feeling sure about a test answer without studying.

Clue for Overconfidence

'Thinking I'm more right than I am.'

Caution for Overconfidence

Leads to mistakes and errors in judgment.

Related Concepts to Overconfidence

Confirmation bias.

Application of Overconfidence

Calibrate confidence with evidence.

Quantitative Research

Research using numerical data and statistical methods.

Example of Quantitative Research

Survey with rating scales analyzed statistically.

Clue for Quantitative Research

Numbers and statistics.

Application of Quantitative Research

Useful for measuring variables and relationships precisely.

Qualitative Research

Research involving non-numeric data, such as interviews or observations, focusing on meaning and themes.

Example of Qualitative Research

Open-ended interviews about experiences.

Clue for Qualitative Research

Words and themes.

Application of Qualitative Research

Useful for exploring complex processes and meanings.

Example of Hypothesis

'Increased studying leads to better test scores.'

Clue for Hypothesis

'If... then...' statement.

Application of Hypothesis

Needed to guide scientific testing.

Dependent Variable

Variable measured to see effect of manipulation.

Independent Variable

Variable manipulated by researcher to observe effect.

Falsifiable

A statement that can be proven false by evidence.

Replicated

Repeated studies to confirm results.

Sample

Subset of population studied.

Population

Complete group researcher wants to generalize about.

Representative Sample

Sample reflecting population characteristics.

Convenience Sampling

Sampling participants readily available.

Generalize

Applying findings from sample to population.

Stratified Sampling

Sampling with proportionate representation of groups.

Experimenter Bias

Researchers' expectations influencing results.

Single-Blind Study

Participant unaware of condition, but experimenter knows.

Social Desirability Bias

Participants respond to appear favorable.

Experimental Group

Group receiving treatment or manipulation.

Control Group

Group not receiving treatment for comparison.

Placebo Method

Use of inert treatment to control for expectations.

Positive Correlation

Two variables increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

One variable increases as the other decreases.

Study

Research investigation.

Likert Scales

Survey scales measuring agreement or frequency.

Directionality Problem

In correlational research, uncertainty about cause-effect direction.

Third Variable

Unmeasured factor influencing both variables in correlation.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in natural setting without intervention.

Structured Interview

Interview with set questions and format.

Case Study

Detailed examination of one individual or group.