AP exam 2

osteocytes are

bonce cells (true bone cells)

osteoblasts are

bone forming cells (immature)

osteoblasts eventually turn into

osteocytes

Osteoclasts are

bone destroying cells, destroy old bone

chondrocytes are

cartilage cells, used for growth

how does bone grow in length

1) chondrocyte hyperplasia

2)chondrocytes line up in columns

3)chondrocyte hypertrophy

4)dying chondrocytes

5)osteoclasts start to remove dead chondrocytes

6)osteoblasts move into tunnels and secrete osteoid (collagen)

7)precipitate Ca and PO4 in matrix'

8)osteoblasts get trapped in osteoid which then turn into osteocytes

how does bone grow in width

1)Osteoblast precursors turning into osteoblasts

2)Production of new osteoid by osteoblasts

3)Osteoblasts getting trapped in osteoid to form osteocytes

how are fractures repaired in bones

1)break blood vessels

2)create inflammation (increase blood flow)

3)bring in cells, fibroblasts and chondrocytes

4) those cells add fibrin protein and form cartilage

5)forms a callus

6)replace cartilage in callus with bone

Hypercalcemia (fatal) causes

heart cramps, deposits of Ca=mineralization, loss of elasticity (function)

hypocalcemia causes

loss of nerve function, reduced metabolic functions, and decreased blood flow

how to fix hypercalcemia

our thyroid is the sensor> releases the hormone calcitonin> that increases urinary secretion>negative feedback

how to fix hypocalcemia

our parathyroid gland is the sensor> secretes the hormone PTH> that then raises blood calcium>negative feedback

what are the 6 sections of the brain

cortex, prefrontal cortex, diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum, telencephalon

Prefrontal cortex:

last part of brain to develop, evaluates and predicts potential outcomes, suppresses or allows a stress response

cerebral Cortex does:

Interprets sensory information like touch and light

cerebellum does:

makes decisions about sensory information, receives information rom other areas of brain

diencephalon: thalamus function:

getting info to the correct location

diencephalon: hypothalamus function

senses basic function like nutrients, growth, metabolism, body temp

cerebellum function

can take over most functions, timing and sequence of movements, size increases when u learn like riding a bike

brainstem function

lizard brain, senses blood gases and triggers physiological response

Taste:

very limited on its own, chemoreceptors to detect chemicals, needs sight and smell to perceive flavor.

sight:

uses photoreceptors, 4 distinct visual fields, light>receptors>thalamus>visual cortex 

touch:

mechanoreceptors, receptors trigger nerve impulses

smell:

chemoreceptors, respond to chemicals in air, Chemical> receptor> nerve impulse>thalamus> olfactory cortex

hearing:

Sound waves>fluid> generate nerve impulses

anxiety:

creates a stress response when no outside stimulus is present

fear:

creates a stress response in result from a stimulus

sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight response usually raises things

parasympathetic nervous system

rest and relax usually lowers things

autonomic tone

base level activities