Human Anatomy

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Flashcards from Human Anatomy Lecture Notes

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756 Terms

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Gross Anatomy

Study of visible structures (e.g., brain)

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Microscopic Anatomy

Requires magnification (e.g., neurons, cytology, histology)

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Regional Anatomy

Structures in a specific region (e.g., arm muscles, vessels)

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Systemic Anatomy

Study by systems (e.g., cardiovascular)

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<p>Structural Organization of the Human Body</p>

Structural Organization of the Human Body

Subatomic particles -> Atoms -> Molecules -> Organelles -> Cells -> Tissues -> Organs -> Organ Systems -> Organism

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Cells

Smallest unit of life

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Organelles

Specialized cell parts

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<p>Tissues</p>

Tissues

Similar cells working together

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<p>Organs</p>

Organs

Groups of tissues

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Organ Systems

Groups of organs working together

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<p>Anabolism</p>

Anabolism

Builds up molecules (uses energy)

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<p>Catabolism</p>

Catabolism

Breaks down molecules (releases energy)

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<p>Metabolism</p>

Metabolism

Sum of anabolism + catabolism

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<p>ATP</p>

ATP

Cell's energy currency

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Responsiveness

React to stimuli

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Development

The body changes over time

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Growth

Increase in size or number of cells

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Differentiation

Cells become specialized

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Reproduction

Formation of new organisms

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Water

Essential solvent; 70% body mass

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Energy-Yielding Nutrients

Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins

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Micronutrients

Vitamins and minerals

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Set Point

Ideal physiological value

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Normal Range

Healthy fluctuation range

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<p>Negative Feedback</p>

Negative Feedback

A mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point.

  • Homeostasis is maintained by a negative feedback loop.

  • Ex: sweating

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Components

Sensor -> Control Center -> Effector

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<p>Positive Feedback</p>

Positive Feedback

Amplifies change (e.g., childbirth)

  • A mechanism that intensifies a physiological condition in the body instead of reversing it.

  • Continues until a definite endpoint

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<p>X-Ray</p>

X-Ray

Produces 2D image

Uses: for hard tissues

Risk: Radiation

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<p>CT Scan</p>

CT Scan

Produces cross-sectional

Uses: for soft tissues

Risk: High radiation

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<p>MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)</p>

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

Produces magnetic imaging

Uses: tumors and soft external tissues

Risk: Expensive and no radiation

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<p>Integumentary System</p>

Integumentary System

  • Protects the body

  • sensory site

  • Organs: Skin, hair, nails

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<p>Skeletal System</p>

Skeletal System

Support and movement

Organs: Bones, cartilage

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<p>Muscular System</p>

Muscular System

Movement and temp regulation

Organs: Muscles and tendons

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<p>Nervous System</p>

Nervous System

Process info and control

Organs: Brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves

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<p>Endocrine</p>

Endocrine

Secretes hormones and regulation

Organs: Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, testes, and ovaries

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<p>Cardiovascular System</p>

Cardiovascular System

Transport oxygen and nutrients and equalizes temp

Organs: Heart, vessels

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<p>Lymphatic System</p>

Lymphatic System

Immunity and fluid return

Organs: Thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphatic vessels

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<p>Respiratory System</p>

Respiratory System

Removes carbon dioxide and Delivers oxygen to the blood

Organs: Nasal passage, trachea, and lungs

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<p>Digestive System</p>

Digestive System

Responsible for nutrition and waste

Organs: Stomach, liver, gall bladder, large intestine, small intestine

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<p>Urinary System</p>

Urinary System

Waste excretion and water balance

Organs: Kidneys and bladder

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<p>Male Reproductive System</p>

Male Reproductive System

Secretes hormones and gametes

Organs: Epididymis and testes

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<p>Female Reproductive System</p>

Female Reproductive System

Secretes hormones and gametes, supports infants, and produces milk

Organs: Mammary glands, ovaries, uterus

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An organism's basic function:

An organism's basic function:
Consume energy and molecules from food to convert into fuel for movement, sustain its body functions, and build and maintain its body structures.

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The requirements for life are oxygen, nutrients, and pressure.

The requirements for life are oxygen, nutrients, and pressure.

  • These are essential for maintaining cellular function and overall health.

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Required chemical reactions in the body only take place when the body is within its narrow range temperature (Just below 37C (98.6F))

Required chemical reactions in the body only take place when the body is within its narrow range temperature (Just below 37C (98.6F))

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Oxygen is a key component of chemical reactions, such as producing ATP.

Oxygen is a key component of chemical reactions, such as producing ATP.

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Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously monitor its internal conditions.

Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously monitor its internal conditions.

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In the heat, blood vessels dilate to release heat/ in the cold, blood vessels constrict to conserve heat.

In the heat, blood vessels dilate to release heat/ in the cold, blood vessels constrict to conserve heat.

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<p>Anatomical Position</p>

Anatomical Position

Anatomical Position

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<p>Prone</p>

Prone

Face-down orientation

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<p>Supine</p>

Supine

Face up orientation

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<p>Anterior (or ventral)</p>

Anterior (or ventral)

Front of the body (facing forward) Ex:The toes are anterior to the foot

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<p>Posterior (or dorsal)</p>

Posterior (or dorsal)

Back of the body (facing backwards) Ex: The popliteus is posterior to the patella.

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<p>Superior (or cranial)</p>

Superior (or cranial)

Position above/toward the head Ex: The orbits are superior to the oris

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<p>Interior (or caudal)</p>

Interior (or caudal)

Position below or away from the head Ex: The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen.

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<p>Lateral</p>

Lateral

The side or direction toward the side of the body Ex: The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits.

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<p>Medial</p>

Medial

Position of in the middle or direction towards the middle of the body. Ex: The hallux is the medial toe

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<p>Proximal</p>

Proximal

The distance of a limb that is closer to the trunk or attachment to the body Ex: The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium

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<p>Distal</p>

Distal

The distance of a limb that is farther away from the trunk or attachment to the body. Ex:The crus is distal to the femur.

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<p>Superficial</p>

Superficial

Position closer to the surface of the body Ex: The skin is superficial to the bones.

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<p>Deep</p>

Deep

Position farther from the surface of the body. Ex: The brain is deep to the skull

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Section

Two dimensional surface of a 3D structure that has been cut

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<p>Plane</p>

Plane

Imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body.

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<p>Sagittal Plane</p>

Sagittal Plane

Divides the body or organ vertically into right and left sides

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<p>Midsagittal or median plane</p>

Midsagittal or median plane

Vertical plan directly down the middle of the body

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<p>Parasagittal plane or longitudinal section</p>

Parasagittal plane or longitudinal section

Unequal right and left sides plane or longitudinal section

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<p>Frontal Plane</p>

Frontal Plane

Divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back)

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<p>Transverse Plane</p>

Transverse Plane

Divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portions.

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<p>Dorsal (posterior) Cavity</p>

Dorsal (posterior) Cavity

Includes the cranial (brain) and spinal (spinal cord) cavities.

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<p>Ventral (anterior) Cavity</p>

Ventral (anterior) Cavity

Includes the thoracic (the organs inside the rib cage and diaphragm) and abdominopelvic (abdomen and the top of the pelvis) cavities.

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<p>Serous Membrane</p>

Serous Membrane

The thin membrane that covers the walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic.

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<p>Parietal Layers</p>

Parietal Layers

Membrane that lines the walls of the body cavity

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<p>Visceral Layer</p>

Visceral Layer

Membrane that covers the organs

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Chemical Energy

Form of energy that is stored in chemical bonds.

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<p>Exergonic</p>

Exergonic

Chemical reactions that release more energy than they absorb. Ex: Catabolism

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<p>Endergonic</p>

Endergonic

Chemical reactions that absorb more energy than they release.

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<p>Enzyme</p>

Enzyme

A catalyst composed of either a protein or a ribonucleic acid (RNA).

  • Works by lowering the level of energy needed to cause a chemical reaction.

  • Critical to the body's healthy functioning

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Activation Energy

The threshold level of energy needed to break the reactant bonds.

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<p>Inorganic Compound</p>

Inorganic Compound

A substance that does not contain both carbon and hydrogen

  • Many contain hydrogen atoms (H2O and HCl)

  • Very little contain carbon atoms (CO2)

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The three inorganic compounds that are essential to life are

Water, salts, acids and bases

The three inorganic compounds that are essential to life are

Water, salts, acids and bases

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Organic Compounds

A substance that contains both carbon and hydrogen -Synthesized by covalent bonds within living organisms, including the human body.

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Five functional groups that are important to human physiology

Hydroxyl, Carboxyl, Amine, Methyl, and Phosphate

Five functional groups that are important to human physiology

Hydroxyl, Carboxyl, Amine, Methyl, and Phosphate

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Heat Sink

A substance or object that absorbs and dissipates heat but doesn't experience an increase in temperature Ex: water

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<p>Hydrophillic</p>

Hydrophillic

Dissolves in water (water loving)

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<p>Hydrophobic</p>

Hydrophobic

Does not dissolve in water (water fearing)

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Salt

A substance that, when dissolved in water, dissociates into ions other than H+ or OH

  • Formed when ions make an ionic bond.

  • Dissociates into ions that are electrolytes and conduct electrical currents.

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<p>Acids</p>

Acids

A substance that releases hydrogen ions in a solution -Proton donor -Strong acids release all their H+ in solution (they ionize completely) -Strong acids aid in digestion and kill ingested microbes.

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<p>Base</p>

Base

A substance that releases hydroxyl ions (OH-) in solution and accepts present H+ -Proton recipient -Removes H+ and reduces acidity.

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<p>Buffers</p>

Buffers

A solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base.

  • Can neutralize small amounts of acids or bases in body fluids.

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Carbohydrate

A molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Also called sugars

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<p>Monosaccharide</p>

Monosaccharide

Monomers of carbohydrates. \Three of these are hexo sugars (6 carbons): glucose, fructose, and galactose Two are pentose sugars (5 carbons): ribose and deoxyribose

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<p>Disaccharides</p>

Disaccharides

Made of two monosaccharides -

  • Fromed through dehydration synthesis

  • Broken apart into monosaccharides in the digestive tract through hydrolysis

  • Three main sugars: sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose (malt sugar)

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<p>Polysaccharide</p>

Polysaccharide

The polymers and consist of hundred to thousands of monomers or monosaccharides. -Three are important to the body: -Starches (polymer of glucose) -Glycogen (polymer of glucose) -Cellulose (fiber from plants cell wall)

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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Composed of a ribose sugar, an adenine base, and three phosphate groups -Releases free energy when phosphate bonds are broken and supplies cells with energy -Produced in the presence of oxygen

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<p>Lipids</p>

Lipids

One of a highly diverse group of compounds made up mostly of hydrocarbons. -Hydrophobic -Organic compound

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Dietary fat assists in the absorption and transport of nonpolar fat-soluble vitamins

  • Stored body fat protects, cushions the bones and internal organs, and insulates to retain heat.

Dietary fat assists in the absorption and transport of nonpolar fat-soluble vitamins

  • Stored body fat protects, cushions the bones and internal organs, and insulates to retain heat.

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<p>Triglyceride</p>

Triglyceride

One of the most common dietary lipid groups Formed through dehydration synthesis. -Major fuel source for the body.

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<p>Saturated Fatty Acid</p>

Saturated Fatty Acid

Fatty acid with no double carbon bonds -Sold at room temp -Ex: butter -Unhealthy

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<p>Unsaturated Fatty Acid</p>

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

Fatty acid with double carbon bonds -Liquid at room temperature -Healthy

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<p>Trans fatty acids</p>

Trans fatty acids

Created from unsaturated fatty acids (such as corn oil) when chemically treated to produce partially hydrogenated fats. -Found in processed foods -Unhealthy and harmful to the heart and blood vessels.