Sociology Terms 2/2

Social inequality

a high degree of disparity in income, wealth, power, prestige, and other resources

Social stratification

the systematic ranking of different groups of people in a hierarchy of inequality

Caste society

a system in which social positions are closed, so that individuals remain at the social level of their birth throughout life

Class society

a system in which social mobility allows an individual to change their socioeconomic position

Social categories

categories of people who share common characteristics without necessarily interacting or identifying with one another

Achieved status

social position linked to an individual’s acquisition of socially valued credentials or skills

Ascribed status

social position linked to characteristics that are socially significant but cannot be generally altered (such as race or sex)

Class

refers to a person’s economic position in society, which is usually associated with income, wealth, and occupation (and sometimes with political voice)

Life chances

the opportunities and obstacles a person encounters in education, social life, work, and other areas critical to social mobility

Social mobility

the upward or downward status movement of individuals or groups over time

Income

the amount of money a person or household earns in a given period of time

Wealth (net worth)

the value of everything a person owns minus the values of everything he or she owes

Net financial assets

a measure of wealth that excludes illiquid personal assets, such as home and vehicles

Occupation

a person’s main vocation or paid employment

Status

the prestige associated with a social position

Political power

the ability to exercise influence on political institutions and/or political actors to realize personal or group interests

Food deserts

areas (often urban neighborhoods or rural towns) characterized by poor access to healthy and affordable food

Official poverty line

the dollar amount set by the government as the minimum necessary to meet the basic needs of a family

Meritocracy

a society in which personal success is based on talent and individual effort

Race

a group of people who share a set of characteristics (usually physical characteristics) deemed by a society to be socially significant

Ethnicity

characteristics of groups associated with national origins, languages, and cultural and religious practices

Minorities

less powerful groups that are dominated politically, economically, and socially by a more powerful group and, often, discriminated against on the basis of characteristics deemed by the majority to be socially significant

Expulsion

the process of forcibly removing a population from a particular area

Refugees

people who have fled war, violence, conflict, or persecution and have crossed an international border to find safety in another country

Segregation

the practice of separating people spatially or socially on the basis of race or ethnicity

Restrictive covenants

contractual agreements that restrict the use of land, ostensibly in order to preserve the value of adjacent land or a neighborhood

Environmental racism

policies and practices that impact the environment of communities where the population is disproportionately composed of ethnic and racial minorities

Hate crime

a criminal offense against a person or property motivated in whole or in part by an offender’s bias against a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, ethnicity, gender, or gender identity

Assimilation

the absorption of a minority group into the dominant culture

Cultural pluralism

the coexistence of different racial and ethnic groups as characterized by the acceptance of one another’s differences

Scapegoating

assigning misplaced blame to a person or group based on an alleged characteristic or action

Racism

the idea that one social group is inherently superior to another; often results in institutionalized relationships between dominant and minority groups that create a structure of economic, social, and political inequality based on socially constructed racial or ethnic categories

Stigma

an attribute that is deeply discrediting to an individual or group because it overshadows other attributes and merits the individual or group may possess

Prejudice

a belief about an individual or a group that is not subject to change on the basis of evidence

Stereotyping

the generalization of a set of characteristics to all members of a group

Discrimination

the unequal treatment of individuals on the basis of their membership in a group

Individual discrimination

overt and intentional unequal treatment, often based on prejudicial beliefs

Institutionalized discrimination

discrimination enshrined in law, public policy, or common practice; it is unequal treatment that has become part of the routine operation of such major social institutions as businesses, schools, hospitals, and the government

Social epidemiology

the study of communities and their social statuses, practices, and problems with the aim of understanding health and disease

Genocide

the mass, systematic destruction of a people or nation

Sex

the anatomical and other biological characteristics that differ between males and females and that originate in human genes

Intersex

those born with characteristics associated with sex that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies

Gender

the norms, roles, and behavioral characteristics associated in a given society with being a man or a woman

Gender identity

one’s sense of being a woman, man, or outside of the gender binary

Cisgender

those whose gender identity matches their assigned sex at birth

Transgender

an umbrella term used to describe those whose gender identity, expression, or behavior differs from their assigned sex at birth or is outside the gender binary

Patriarchy

any set of social relationships in which men dominate women

Sexuality

a term sed to encompass sexual identity, attraction, and relationships

Queer theory

a theory that describes how societies develop ideas about sexuality and gender, rejecting claims that gender identities and sexuality are fixed or stable

Gender socialization

the process of learning social norms and values around gender

Gender roles

the actions, attitudes, and behaviors that are considered appropriately masculine or feminine in a particular culture

Second shift

the unpaid housework that women typically do after they come home from their paid employment

Gender wage gap

the difference between the earnings of women who work full-time year-round and those of men who work full-time year-round as a group

Occupational gender segregation

the concentration of men and women in different occupations

Labor supply factors

factors that highlight reasons why women or men may prefer particular occupations

Labor demand factors

factors that highlight the needs and preferences of the employer

Human Capital

the skills, knowledge, and credentials a person possesses that make him or her valuable in a particular workplace

Indirect labor costs

the time, training, or money spent when an employee takes time off to care for sick family members, opts for parental leave, arrives at work late, or leaves a position after receiving employer-provided training

Glass escalator

the nearly invisible promotional bosst that men gain in female-dominated occupations

Glass ceiling

an artificial boundary that allows women to see the next occupational or salary level even as structural obstacles keep them from reaching it

Feminisim

the belief that social equality should exist between the sexes; also, the social movements aimed at achieving that goal

Sexism

the belief that one sex is innately superior to the other and is therefore justified in having a dominant social position

Liberal feminism

the belief that women’s inequality is primarily the result of imperfect institutions, which can be corrected by reforms that do not fundamentally alter society itself

Socialist feminism

the belief that women’s inequality results from the combination of capitalistic economic relations and the patriarchy, arguing that both must be fundamentally transformed before women can achieve equality

Radical feminism

the belief that women’s inequality underlies all other forms of inequality, including economic inequality

Multicultural feminism

the belief that inequality must be understood—and ended—for all women, regardless of race, class, nationality, age, sexual orientation, physical ability, or other characteristics

Standpoint theory

a perspective that says the knowledge we create is conditioned by where we stand or by our subjective social position in our daily lives

Standpoint epistemology

a philosophical perspective that argues that what we can know is affected by the position we occupy in society

Matrix of domination

a system of social positions in which any individual may concurrently occupy a status as a member of a dominated group and as a status as a member of a dominating group

Hegemonic masculinity

the culturally normative idea of male behavior that often emphasizes strength, control, and aggression

Family

two or more individuals who identify themselves as being related to one another, usually by blood, marriage, or adoption, and who share intimate relationships and dependency

Homogamy and assortative mating

when you couple with someone very like you (contributes to rising income inequality in the U.S.)

Marriage

a culturally approved relationship usually between two individuals, that provides a framework for economic cooperation, emotional intimacy, and sexual relations

Monogamy

a form of marriage in which a person may have only one spouse at a time

Polygamy

a form of marriage in which a person may have more than one spouse at a time

Polygyny

a form of marriage in which a man may have multiple wives

Polyandry

a form of marriage in which a woman may have multiple husbands

Serial monogamy

the practice of having more than one wife or husband—but only one at a time

Endogamous

a characteristic of marriages in which partners are limited to members of the same social group or caste

Antimiscegenation laws

laws prohibiting interracial sexual relations and marriage

What ways are families functional for society

Reproduction, socialization, and consumption

Instrumental and expressive roles (for men and women respectively)

Status

Personality stabilization (like having a home base and support system)

How can families be dysfunctional

Economic and emotional dependency

Reinforcing and legitimating traditional roles

Power imbalances

Extended families

social groups consisting of one or ore parents, children, and other kin, often spanning several generations, living in the same household

Nuclear families

families characterized by one or two parent living with their biological, dependent children in a household with no other kin

Sexual division of labor

the phenomenon of dividing production functions by gender and designating different spheres of activity, the “private” to women and the “public” to men

Cultural narrative for men

men feel burdened and constrained while actually exercising authority

Cultural narrative for women

women feel fulfilled but dependent

Psychodynamic approach

argues gender socialization is the result of infant/mother relations

Why has marriage declined

declining attitude that marriage is important

More viable alternatives

Economics have shifted

Shift in the marriage market

Cohabitation

living together as a couple without being legally married

Common-law marriage

a type of relationship in which partners live as if married but without the formal legal framework of traditional marriage

Domestic (or family) violence

physical or sexual abuse committed by one family member against another

Foster care

a situation in which a child is cared for by people who are not his or her parents for either a brief or extended period of time

International families

families that result from globalization