AP Psychology: 2.2 - 2.8

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112 Terms

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Accommodation

The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

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Algorithms

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

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Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.

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Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

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Convergent thinking

A type of thinking that focuses on coming up with the single, well-established answer to a problem.

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Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

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Divergent thinking

A type of thinking that involves generating multiple possible solutions to a problem.

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Executive functions

Cognitive processes including planning, flexible thinking, and inhibitory control.

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Framing

The way an issue is posed, which can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

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Functional fixedness

The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions.

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Gambler’s fallacy

The belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t happened recently.

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Heuristics

Simple, efficient rules which people often use to form judgments and make decisions.

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Mental set

A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

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Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

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Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category.

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Representativeness heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent particular prototypes.

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Sunk-cost fallacy

The inclination to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made.

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Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information.

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Central executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and processing.

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Deep encoding

The process of encoding information on a meaningful level.

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Echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.

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Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

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Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system.

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Episodic memory

The collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.

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Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

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Iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli.

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Implicit memory

Retention independent of conscious recollection.

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Levels of processing model (Craik & Lockhart)

A theory that suggests the depth (shallow to deep) at which information is thought about affects memory retention.

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Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

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Long-term potentiation

An increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.

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Multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin)

A model that describes memory as having three stores

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Phonemic processing

Processing that focuses on the sound of the information.

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Phonological loop

The part of working memory that deals with spoken and written material.

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Primary memory system

The system responsible for short-term and long-term memory storage.

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Procedural memory

A type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills.

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Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a planned action or intention at the appropriate time.

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Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

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Semantic processing

Processing that focuses on the meaning of the information.

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Semantic memory

Memory for knowledge about the world.

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Sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

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Shallow encoding

Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.

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Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

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Structural processing

Processing that focuses on the structure of the information.

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Visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory that holds and manipulates visual images.

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Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing.

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Working memory model (Baddeley & Fitch)

A model that describes working memory as consisting of multiple components, including the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive.

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Categorical classification

Organizing information into categories.

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Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.

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Distributed practice

Spacing the study of material over time to enhance memory.

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Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system.

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Hierarchies

Organizing information into broad categories that are further divided into subcategories.

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Massed practice

Cramming the study of material into a short period.

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Memory consolidation

The process by which memories become stable in the brain.

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Method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items with a location.

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Mnemonic devices

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

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Primacy effect

The tendency to remember the first items in a list better than the middle items.

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Recency effect

The tendency to remember the last items in a list better than the middle items.

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Serial position effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

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Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed study to yield better long-term retention.

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Alzheimer’s disease

A progressive neurodegenerative disorder that leads to memory loss and cognitive decline.

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Amnesia

A loss of memory, often due to brain injury, disease, or psychological trauma.

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Anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.

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Autobiographical memory

Memory for events and issues related to oneself.

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Elaborative rehearsal

A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered.

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Infantile amnesia

The inability to recall memories from early childhood.

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Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

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Maintenance rehearsal

The process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information.

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Memory retention

The ability to retain information over time.

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Rehearsal

The conscious repetition of information to be remembered.

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Retrograde amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one’s past.

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Sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

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Short-term memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly.

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Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing.

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Context-dependent memory

The improved recall of information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same.

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Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes.

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Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood.

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Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier.

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Recognition

A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned.

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Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

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Retrieval cues

Stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory.

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State-dependent memory

The improved recall of information when one is in the same state of consciousness as when the memory was formed.

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Testing effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

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Constructive memory

The process of remembering by combining elements of experience with existing knowledge.

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Encoding failure

The inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory.

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Forgetting curve

A graph showing retention and forgetting over time.

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Imagination inflation

The increased confidence in a false memory caused

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Memory consolidation

The process by which memories become stable in the brain over time.

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Misinformation effect

The phenomenon where a person's recall of an event becomes less accurate due to post-event information.

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Proactive interference

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

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Repression

A defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

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Retroactive interference

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

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Source amnesia

Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.

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Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

The temporary inability to remember something accompanied by a feeling that it is just out of reach.

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Achievement tests

Tests designed to assess what a person has learned.

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Aptitude tests

Tests designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

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Chronological age

The actual age of a person in years.

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Construct validity

The extent to which a test measures what it claims to be measuring.

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Fixed mindset

The belief that intelligence and abilities are static and unchangeable.

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Flynn Effect

The observed rise in average IQ scores over time, across many nations.

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g (general intelligence)

A factor that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.