Anatomy & Embryology - Vocabulary Flashcards (Exam Review)

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms from the lecture notes to aid exam preparation.

Levels of structural organization

The hierarchy from smallest to largest: chemical, cells, tissues, organs, systems, organism.

Anatomical position

Standard reference position: standing upright, feet together, arms at sides, palms facing forward.

Directional terms

Terms describing location relative to the body (anterior/ventral, posterior/dorsal, superior/cranial, inferior/caudal, medial, lateral, proximal, distal, superficial, deep).

Body cavities

Body cavities include dorsal and ventral cavities and their subdivisions that house organs.

Blastocyst

Early embryo with an inner cell mass and trophoblast that implants into the uterus.

Zygote

Fertilized egg; the first cell of a new individual.

Cleavage

Rapid mitotic divisions after fertilization that increase cell number without growth.

Blastomere

One of the cells formed by cleavage of the zygote.

Morula

Early multicellular stage (around 16 cells) preceding the blastocyst.

Germ layers

Endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm—the three primary embryonic layers.

Endoderm

Innermost germ layer forming the lining of the GI and respiratory tracts and related organs.

Ectoderm

Outer germ layer giving rise to the skin, nervous system, and sensory organs.

Mesoderm

Middle germ layer forming muscles, bones, blood, and connective tissues.

Notochord

Mesoderm-derived structure signaling development of the neural tube and vertebral column.

Neural crest

Cells from the neural plate border that migrate to form diverse tissues (nerves, bones of face, etc.).

Gastrulation

Week 3 process forming the three primary germ layers.

Neurulation

Formation of the nervous system from neural plate to neural tube.

Embryonic disk

Bilaminar disc that becomes trilaminar during gastrulation.

Three primary germ layers (summary)

Endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm—the basis for all organ systems.

Germ layer derivatives (ectoderm)

Nervous system and epidermis (skin, hair, nails).

Germ layer derivatives (mesoderm)

Muscles, bones, blood, cartilage, and connective tissues.

Germ layer derivatives (endoderm)

Lining of GI and respiratory tracts and associated glands.

Tissue

A group of cells with similar structure and function.

Epithelium

Tissue that lines surfaces and forms glands; classified by layers (simple/stratified) and shapes (squamous, cuboidal, columnar).

Simple squamous epithelium

Single layer of flat cells; permits diffusion and filtration.

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Single layer of cube-shaped cells; specialized in secretion and absorption.

Simple columnar epithelium

Single layer of tall cells; absorption and secretion (often with microvilli).

Stratified squamous epithelium

Multiple layers; protective; can be keratinized or non-keratinized.

Connective tissue

Tissue that supports, connects, or binds other tissues; includes bone, blood, fat, cartilage.

Elastic fibers

Fibers that provide stretch and recoil in connective tissue.

Collagen fibers

Tough, flexible fibers providing tensile strength.

Reticular fibers

Fine collagen fibers forming supportive networks in tissues.

Mechanical properties of connective tissue depend on fiber content

Properties depend on fiber type, packing density, organization, and relative fiber proportions.

Osseous tissue

Bone tissue; mineralized connective tissue with a rigid matrix.

Ossification

Bone formation.

Long bone

A bone longer than wide with a shaft (diaphysis) and ends (epiphyses).

Diaphysis

Shaft or central part of a long bone.

Epiphyses

Ends of a long bone, separated from the shaft by the metaphysis during growth.

Metaphysis

Region between diaphysis and epiphysis where growth occurs in immature bone.

Medullary cavity

Hollow cavity inside the diaphysis that contains marrow.

Periosteum

Outer fibrous layer covering bone; attachment for tendons and vessels.

Spongy bone

Cancellous, porous bone with trabeculae and red marrow.

Compact bone

Dense, solid bone tissue with osteons; forms the outer layer of bone.

Bone remodeling

Continuous cycle of bone resorption and formation by osteoclasts and osteoblasts.

Fracture repair

Healing process after a bone fracture involving inflammation, callus formation, and remodeling.

Axial skeleton

Bones of the head, neck, and trunk.

Appendicular skeleton

Bones of the limbs and girdles.

Vertebral column

The spine; supports the body and protects the spinal cord.

Typical vertebra

Vertebral body, vertebral arch, and processes; variations along the column.

C1 (atlas)

First cervical vertebra; supports the skull; lacks a body.

C2 (axis)

Second cervical vertebra; contains the dens, enabling head rotation.

Vertebral curves (general)

Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral curves that provide balance and flexibility.

Kyphosis

Excessive posterior (thoracic) curvature.

Lordosis

Excessive anterior (lumbar) curvature.

Scoliosis

Abnormal lateral curvature of the spine.

Intervertebral disc

Cartilaginous disc between vertebrae; absorbs shock and allows movement.

Skull bones (facial vs cranial)

Cranial bones protect the brain; facial bones form the face.

Thoracic cage

Ribs and sternum forming the chest wall that protects thoracic organs.

Pectoral girdle

Shoulder girdle formed by clavicle and scapula; connects upper limb to axial skeleton.

Upper limb bones

Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.

Pelvic girdle

Hip bones that attach the lower limbs to the axial skeleton; differs from the pectoral girdle.

Lower extremity bones

Bones of the leg: femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges.

Articulation

A joint where two or more bones meet and movement occurs.

Structural joint classifications

Fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints based on tissue type joining bones.

Synovial joint

Joint with a fluid-filled synovial cavity allowing wide range of motion.

Types of synovial joints

Gliding, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket.

Range of motion determinants

Type of joint surfaces, ligaments, muscle tension, and surrounding structures.

Origin

Stationary attachment of a muscle to a bone.

Insertion

Mobile attachment of a muscle to the bone it moves.

Motor unit

A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates.

Agonist

Prime mover responsible for a specific movement.

Antagonist

Muscle that opposes the action of the agonist.

Synergist

Muscle that assists the agonist in performing a movement.

Mechanical advantage

Lever systems that increase force at the expense of speed/distance.

Lever systems

Classify levers as first, second, or third class based on fulcrum, effort, and load.

Muscle tissue (general)

Tissue responsible for movement; includes skeletal muscle types.

Muscle fiber

Elongated cell containing myofibrils; basic unit of muscular contraction.

Nerve

Bundle of peripheral axons and associated connective tissue.

Neuron

Nerve cell; basic unit of the nervous system with soma, dendrites, and axon.

Myelin

Electrically insulating layer around many axons increasing conduction speed.

Gray matter

CNS regions rich in neuronal cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers.

White matter

CNS regions rich in myelinated axons forming tracts.

Reflex arc

Five-part pathway: receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector.

Brain parts (basic)

Cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, diencephalon, and limbic system as major regions.

Cerebrum

Largest brain region responsible for higher functions and sensation.

Cerebral dominance

Hemispheric specialization for language and analytic tasks in most people.

Basal nuclei (ganglia)

Deep brain structures regulating movement and coordination.

Diencephalon

Forebrain region containing thalamus, hypothalamus, and infundibulum.

Infundibulum

Stalk connecting the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland.

Brainstem

Midbrain, pons, and medulla; basic life-sustaining functions and connections to the cerebellum.

Cerebellum

Brain region essential for balance, posture, and coordinated movement.

Limbic system

Brain regions involved in emotion, memory, and behavior.

Spinal cord

CNS pathway inside the vertebral canal transmitting signals between brain and body.

Ascending tracts

Nerve pathways that carry sensory information toward the brain.

Descending tracts

Nerve pathways that carry motor commands from the brain to the body.

Cranial nerves

12 paired nerves arising from the brain; can be motor, sensory, or mixed.

Spinal nerves

31 paired nerves arising from the spinal cord; form plexuses.

Plexus

Network of intersecting nerves formed by ventral rami; e.g., cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral.

Dermatome

Skin area innervated by a single spinal nerve; useful in clinical localization.

Cranial nerves (short reference)

Twelve pairs of nerves with varying functions—sensory, motor, or both.