Psych Exam - Chaters 1-3

Dr. Sapolsky studied baboons in Africa. He looked at how the levels of the stress hormone cortisol changed depending on whether the baboon was the leader of the troop or a lowly subordinate. Dr. Sapolsky studied

- behavioral pharmacology.

- behavioral genetics.

- behavioral immunology.

- psychophysiology.

- behavioral neuroendocrinology.

behavioral neuroendocrinology

Which of the following is NOT a commonly held myth about the brain?

- Vaccinations cause autism.

- We have only five senses.

- We have about 85 billion neurons in our brain.

- Some people are more right-brain dominant (science-oriented), and others are more left-brain dominant (creativity-oriented).

- We only use 10% of our brain's capacity.

We have about 85 billion neurons in our brain.

Dr. Kaur is interested in the activity of the brainstem during sleep, so she carefully inserts an electrode into a specific area of the brainstem in a rat and records activity while the animal sleeps. Dr. Kaur is a

- neurologist.

- psychopharmacologist.

- physiological psychologist.

- psychophysiologist.

- behavioral endocrinologist.

physiological psychologist.

Someone who studies how behaviors, thoughts, or experiences affect electrodermal activity (EDA) or heart rate using electrocardiograms (ECG) is in the field of

- cognitive neuroscience.

- physiological psychology.

- behavioral cognition.

- None of the above are correct.

- psychophysiology.

psychophysiology

Which of the following subdisciplines in neuroscience would NOT be considered an applied field?

- All of the above are considered applied fields.

- Psychiatry

- Behavioral neuroscience

- Clinical neuroscience

- Neurology

A psychophysiologist would most likely do which of the following types of research?

- the effect of an antidepressant on wheel running behavior in rats

- the level of testosterone in a professional boxer

- the brainwave patterns of a person as measured by an electroencephalogram (EEG) while the person solves a memory problem

- More than one of the above is correct.

- the preferred diet of a mouse that has a part of its hypothalamus (part of the brain) removed

the brainwave patterns of a person as measured by an electroencephalogram (EEG) while the person solves a memory problem

The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of

- the brain, the spinal cord, and nerves going to glands.

- the brain, the spinal cord, and nerves going to gland and muscles.

- the brain.

- the brain, the spinal cord, and nerves going to muscles.

- the brain and spinal cord.

the brain and spinal cord.

The fatty insulation that surrounds axons is called

- mitrial.

- adipose.

- myelin.

- Ranvier.

- porcelain.

myelin.

Gray matter of the spinal cord is largely composed of

- myelinated axons.

- cell bodies and unmyelinated neurons.

- myelin.

- meninges.

- cerebrospinal fluid.

cell bodies and unmyelinated neurons.

Typically, one axon leaves the neuron and branches into axon collaterals, which then branch again into ____________toward the end of the axon, and then finally end in _______________.

- terminal branches, terminal boutons

- terminal branches, terminal endings

- filament collaterals, stop-end terminals

- axon bifurcation, terminal boutons

- terminal filaments, terminal endings

terminal branches, terminal boutons

What are the gaps in the myelin sheath on an axon known as?

- Synaptic gaps

- Dendrites

- Nodes of Ranvier

- Glia cells

Nodes of Ranvier

Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, and some affect postsynaptic receptors. Neurotransmitters are also brought back into the presynaptic neuron to transporters to be repackaged in vesicles in a process called

- transportation.

- reconfiguration.

- reuptake.

- remodification.

- transduction.

reuptake.

If a neurotransmitter increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic cell will send an action potential, the neurotransmitter is said to be

- anatomy.

- excitatory.

- mandatory.

- inhibitory.

- facilitatory.

excitatory.

The cells responsible for myelin in the peripheral nervous system are called________

- Schwaan cells

- microglia

- oligodendrocytes

- astrocytes

Schwaan cells

During the action potential propagation, the "jumping" of action potentials from one node to the next node is called

- Continuous Conduction

- Saltatory Conduction

- Refractory period

- All or none law

Saltatory Conduction

Opening voltage-gated ion channels

- Causes the refractory period

- Depolarizes a neuron

- Repolarizes a neuron

- Causes hyperpolarization

Which is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter?

- serotonin

- dopamine

- GABA

- glutamate

- substance P

glutamate

Sam saw that their friend was approaching and they lifted their arm to wave at her. What type of neuron moved Sam's hand?

- motor neuron

- interneuron

- neurotransmitter

- sensory neuron

motor neuron

The fraudulent line of "medicine" that claims to work because it provides the microscopic "essence" of beneficial chemicals is called

- placebonics.

- All of the above are examples of fraudulent medications.

- pseudomedication.

- phrenopathy.

- homeopathy.

homeopathy.

The idea that advances in genetics, nanotechnology, and brain-computer interface will begin to fundamentally change what it is to be human in the future is known as

- transcendence.

- synthetic evolution.

- transhumanism.

- human devolution.

- altered humanism.

transhumanism

Ethology is the study of

- genetic similarities and differences between people of different ethnic backgrounds.

- animal behavior that typically occurs in animals' natural environments.

- None of the above are correct.

- animal learning, with highly controlled research typically conducted in a laboratory.

- comparative neuroanatomy of animals—typically of those within the same genus.

animal behavior that typically occurs in animals' natural environments.

A psychopharmacologist is most interested in how _____________ affect the brain and behavior.

- proteins

- brainwaves

- drugs

- neurotransmitters

- hormones

drugs

_______________is the futuristic idea that someday consciousness (or the mind) could be uploaded onto a computer. This could be a type of virtual immortality.

- Mind melding technology

- Whole brain emulation

- The matrix

- Brain-computer interface

- Neurosimulation

Whole brain emulation

What is the primary function of the basal ganglia?

- coordinating smooth muscle movement

- regulating hormones in the body

- regulating special memory

- regulating emotional memory

- relaying sensory information

coordinating smooth muscle movement

Jean was in an automobile accident and received damage to an area of the cerebral cortex. Since his accident, he had difficulty with visual processing. Which area of the brain was likely damaged?

- hypothalamus

- amygdala

- hippocampus

- occipital lobe

- frontal lobe

occipital lobe

When standing straight up, the top of your brain (the highest point) is referred to as

- inferior.

- posterior.

- dorsal.

- rostral.

- ventral.

dorsal.

Where does an axon potential begin on an axon?

- the first axon-collateral segment (ACS)

- the first node of Ranvier

- the bouton segmentalis

- the axon initial segment (AIS)

- the action-potential initiating hillock (APIH)

the axon initial segment (AIS)

How does myelin around an axon affect the action potential?

- Myelin increases the speed that an action potential can travel down the axon. Unmyelinated axons send slower signals than myelinated axons.

- Myelin increases the number of action potentials that can be sent per second. In other words, myelin increases the rate of action potentials.

- Myelin decreases the speed that an action potential can travel down the axon. Unmyelinated axons send faster signals than myelinated axons.

- Myelin decreases the number of action potentials that can be sent per second. In other words, myelin decreases the rate of action potentials.

- Myelin does not affect the rate or the speed of an action potential. All it does is insulate the axon from being influenced by other axons.

Myelin increases the speed that an action potential can travel down the axon. Unmyelinated axons send slower signals than myelinated axons.

The direction of information flow through a neurons is

- Denrites, axon, cell body, axon terminals

- Dendrites, cell body, axon, axon terminals

- Axon, cell body, dendrites, axon terminals

- Cell body, dendrites, axon, axon terminals

Dendrites, cell body, axon, axon terminals

A complete mapping of the connections of neurons in an organism is called the organism's

- connectome.

- synaptome.

- neural data configuration (NDC).

- dendritic axonic mapping system (DAMS).

- neural connection map (NCM).

connectome.

What is the space or gap between two neurons called?

- Synaptic gap

- Synaptic vesicles

- Myelin sheath

- Nodes of Ranvier

Synaptic gap

Ions pass through the neural membrane via specialized pores called:

- gap junctions

- connexons

- vesicles

- ion channels

ion channels

Exocytosis is triggered by

- Influx of potassium ions

- Retrograde transport

- anterograde transport

- Calcium ions moving into the presynaptic terminal

Calcium ions moving into the presynaptic terminal

The medulla oblongata is not responsible for

- regulating hormone release

- all of the above

- regulating blood pressure

- regulating breathing

- causing involuntary vomiting

regulating hormone release

Which of the following subfields of neuroscience are most related in terms of their shared interests?

- behavioral genetics and evolutionary psychology

- psychopharmacology and comparative psychology

- behavioral ecology and neuroeconomics

- psychophysiology and physiological psychology

physiological psychology and behavioral ecology

behavioral genetics and evolutionary psychology

Which of the following scientists was NOT mentioned in the section about important people in the ninetieth and twentieth century?

- Wilhelm Wundt

- Ivan Pavlov

- Santiago Ramón y Cajal

- Charles Darwin

- Clark Maxwell

Clark Maxwell

What distinguishes biopsychology from the other subdisciplines of neuroscience?

- Its focus on animal subiects

- Its focus on psvchiatric disorders

- Its focus on psychoactive drugs

- Its focus on the study of behavior

Its focus on the study of behavior

Identical twins share the same genes. It's been found that identical twins also show a tremendous amount of similarities in personality, problem-solving ability, and their like or dislike of scary movies. This is true even if the twins were raised in different adoptive families. A person studying these types of the phenomenon would be in which subfield of neuroscience?

- behavioral genetics

- comparative psychology

- cognitive neuroscience

- behavioral evolution

- behavioral economics

The Edwin Smith surgical papyrus was

- a drawing by Leonardo da Vinci showing the dissection of a human brain.

- an illustration in Andreas Vesalius's book on neuroanatomy created in the 1500s.

- a surgical tool created by Edwin Smith in 1625 for boring holes in the skull.

- a complete description of the brain surgery performed by Edwin Smith in 1756 on a small child.

- the first document that was written in hieroglyphics showing a reference to the brain.

the first document that was written in hieroglyphics showing a reference to the brain.

Another name for the brain stem is the

- tectum.

- medulla oblongata.

- cerebellum.

- thalamus.

- hypothalamus.

medulla oblongata.

A psychophysiologist would most likely do which of the following types of research?

- the level of testosterone in a professional boxer

- the brainwave patterns of a person as measured by an electroencephalogram (EEG) while the person solves a memory problem

- the effect of an antidepressant on wheel running behavior in rats

- More than one of the above is correct.

- the preferred diet of a mouse that has a part of its hypothalamus (part of the brain) removed

the brainwave patterns of a person as measured by an electroencephalogram (EEG) while the person solves a memory problem

Our ability to make our legs move as we walk across the room is controlled by the ______ nervous system.

- Parasympathetic

- Somatic

- Auotnomic

- Central

Somatic

Dendrites

- receive signals from other neurons and transmit that information to the cell body.

- contain genetic material in the form of DNA within a neuron.

- send signals away from a neuron.

- make energy in the form of ATP in a neuron.

- contain neurotransmitters.

receive signals from other neurons and transmit that information to the cell body.

Who was considered the first experimental psychologist?

He did his work on senses and perception.

- Edward Thorndike

- Charles Darwin

- John Watson

- Wilhelm Wundt

- B. F. Skinner

Wilhelm Wundt

If your ________ is activated, you will feel relatively at ease (rest and digest}.

- sympathetic nervous system

- parasympathetic nervous system

- hypothalamus

- Hippocampus

parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the conscious control of muscle movement is called the _______ nervous system.

- paramuscularic

- autonomic

- somatic

- parasympathetic

- sympathetic

somatic

After a neuron fires, its sodium channels close and the neuron cannot fire during that time. The neuron has become _________

- overstimulated

- refractory

- depolarized

- excited

refractory

Describe the sequence of events involved in the action potential from initiation and depolarization to hyperpolarization and the return to resting potential.

The neurons have different charges that can range from-40 to -90 mV. The initiation is the first segment of the axon iust past where the axon meets the cell body. During this process where the information is traveling till it meets with the axon terminal. Depolarization is the reduction of the membrane potential cause by Nat channels opening and causing that to enter the neuron. Hyperpolarization happens when the increase of polarity of a neuron is restored, which is caused by k+ channels opening and leaving the neuron. To remain at resting potential one of the main factors is the uneven distribution of ions between the outside and inside of the neuron.

The chlorine ions in the runner's nerves are moving from areas of high concentration to low concentration in a process known as

- salutatory conduction

- neurotransmission

- the K+/Na+ pump

- diffusion

diffusion

Which are the two types of glutamate receptors?

- NMDA and AMPA

- GM, and GM2

- alpha and beta

- muscarinic and nicotinic

- mu and lambda

NMDA and AMPA

How do the Na+ ions go from the outside (extracellular) to the inside of a neuron (intracellular) through a neuron membrane?

- Because they are moving from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, energy in the form of ATP must be used to transport them in.

- They diffuse directly through the phospholipid bilayer.

- They move through ion channels that are specific to letting in Na+ ions.

- They move through ion channels that allow Na+, Ca++ , and K+ ions to move in and out.

- They are transported through by attaching to fat-soluble particles like lipids that can pass easily through the membrane.

They move through ion channels that are specific to letting in Na+ ions.

What cell provides nutritional and structural support to the neuron?

- synaptic vesicles

- axons

- glia

- xylem

The cells responsible for myelin in the central nervous system are called

- oligodendrocytes

- schwaan cells

- astrocutes

- microglia

oligodendrocytes

Which of the following ions does NOT play a significant role in neuron signaling?

- Li- (lithium)

- Ca++ (calcium)

- K+ (potassium)

- Na+ (sodium)

- Cl- (chloride)

Li- (lithium)

In an action potential, there is a time when the neuron cannot send another signal. This is during the depolarization and repolarization process. This is called the

- relative refractory period.

- absolute refractory period.

- complete refractory period.

- contingent refractory period.

- constant refractory period.

absolute refractory period.

Which of the following is one function of axoplasmic transport?

- It moves Na* and other ions across the neuron membrane against a concentration gradient.

- It moves neurotransmitters out of the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron.

- It shuttles vesicles carrying neurotransmitters from the cell body to the terminal end of the axon.

- It moves neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic neuron.

- It shuttles Na* and other ions from the cell body to the terminal end of the axon.

It shuttles vesicles carrying neurotransmitters from the cell body to the terminal end of the axon.

Neurotransmitters are often stored in:

- synaptic vesicles

- ribosomes

- nodes of Ranvier

- the synaptic cleft

synaptic vesicles

In an action potential, what is the primary cause of depolarization?

- K+ leaving the neuron

- Na+ leaving the neuron

- More than one of the above is correct.

- K+ entering the neuron

- Na+ entering the neuron

Na+ entering the neuron

There are two basic types of synapses between neurons. For one type, the two neurons touch and are called _____synapses. For the other, there is a spacebetween neurons, and these are called ______ synapses.

- contiguous, spaced

- electrical, chemical

- chemical, electrical

- chemical, spaced

- electrical, contiguous

electrical, chemical

Connexons make up ______ in an electrical synapse.

- Ca+ + ion channels

- gap junctions

- post-synaptic receptors

- sodium-potassium pumps

- synaptic plates

gap junctions

The thalamus is part of which division of the brain?

- metencephalon

- mesencephalon

- telencephalon

- diencephalon

- myelencephalon

diencephalon

Which is the best description of the function of microglia?

- They act as the immune system for the CNS, fighting off diseases, and they remove damaged neurons.

- They create myelin for neurons in the PNS.

- They bring nutrients from the vascular system to neurons in the CNS.

- They create neurotransmitters to be used by neurons in the PNS.

- They create myelin for neurons in the CNS.

They act as the immune system for the CNS, fighting off diseases, and they remove damaged neurons.

Who stated that "discrete individual neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system"?

- Joseph von Gerlach

- Santiago Ramón y Caial

- Camillo Golgi

- Hodgkin and Huxley

Santiago Ramón y Caial

Dr. Williams is interested in what areas of the brain are active when people are making decisions about gaining or losing money. Dr. Williams uses an fMRI (brain scanner) and gives research participants choices about earning money. Which field of research does Dr. Williams study?

- More than one of the above is correct.

- physiological psychology

- psychophysiology

- cognitive neuroscience

- neuroeconomics

More than one of the above is correct.

The field of studies materials and machinery that are extremely small. This field may be extremely important for the future of neuroscience.

- macrotechnology

- nanotechnology

- microneurology

- microtechnology

- nanoneurology

nanotechnology

Which philosophy of the mind and the brain is held by most neuroscientists today?

- dualism

- pluralism

- theism

- monism

- counter-naturalism

monism

Which of the following was NOT mentioned as a good reason to study biopsychology in the field of psychology?

- Biopsychology is the foundation of many disciplines in psychology.

- All of the above are good reasons to study biopsychology.

- Biopsychology is just interesting.

- One can be better at applied aspects of psychology, such as counseling, by understanding the biological causes of behaviors.

- Biopsychology helps to dispel myths about the brain.

All of the above are good reasons to study biopsychology.

Which of the following is the best example of what a comparative psychologist would study?

- comparing the cognitive performance of people from different countries

- comparing how a rat, pigeon, and dolphin learn to solve a short-term memory problem

- All of the above are examples of research of a comparative psychologist.

- comparing the performance of memory tasks in children of different ages

- comparing the sizes of the frontal lobe of the brain in different species of monkeys

comparing how a rat, pigeon, and dolphin learn to solve a short-term memory problem

Which of the following big brain projects started in Switzerland with the goal of digitally reconstructing brain tissues in a computer?

- the Blue Brain Project

- Project MindScope

- the DARPA Brain Initiative

- the Human and Animal Project (HBAP)

- the Brain Initiative

the Blue Brain Project

The _______ receives incoming signals from other neurons.

- Axon

- Cell Body

- Dendrites

- Node of Ranvier

Dendrites

Where is cerebral spinal fluid created?

- the meninges

- dorsal horn of the spinal cord

- arachnoid membrane

- the choroid plexus

- dorsolumbar spine

the choroid plexus

Which neurotransmitter is at the synapse between a neuron and a muscle (the neuromuscular junction)?

- dopamine

- glutamate

- GABA

- serotonin

- acetylcholine

acetylcholine

A membrane potential is the difference in electrical charge between

- the inside and outside of a cell.

- synapses and cell bodies.

- nuclei and tracts.

- neuron membranes.

- ganglia and nerves.

the inside and outside of a cell.

Aneuron normally fires when

- its sodium-potassium pumps are stimulated.

- there is an IPSP.

- the degree of depolarization on the axon adjacent to the hillock exceeds the threshold of excitation.

- its buttons are stimulated.

the degree of depolarization on the axon adjacent to the hillock exceeds the threshold of excitation.

The idea that the "whole is greater than the sum of its parts" is best associated with which approach to research?

- polyistic

- holistic

- monoistic

- alterism

- reductionistic

holistic

A medical doctor (M.D.) that specializes in disorders of the brain including providing treatments and prescribing medication is in the field of

- clinical neuroscience.

- neurotheology.

- psychology.

- counseling

- psychiatry.

psychiatry.

Consciousness is difficult to define and to date cannot be explained by studying how simple brain cells (neurons) function. The idea that something unique develops from neuron functions, but that it cannot be explained by understanding neurons, is known as

- a bifurcation.

- an emergent property.

- counter-reductionism.

- a synergism.

- the mind-brain dilemma.

an emergent property.

Name and describe the layers of the meninges from outside in

The meninges are three layers of cushiony tissue covering the central nervous system. The first layer is the dura mater, a thick outer layer up against the vertebrae and the skull. It surrounds the brain and the spinal cord but also surrounds the nerve tracts that leave the spinal cord for a short distance. Then the arachnoid, which is a web-like layer and it creates the subarachnoid space that is filled with CSF and blood vessels. The last layer is the pia mater, a thin layer that follows the cerebral cortex.

Which of the following best describes the goals of the International Brain Lab (IBL)?

- All of the above are major goals of the IBL.

- to create a virtual lab to look at an animal brain in its entirety when animals are doing complex behavior like foraging

- to trace the long tracts of the axons that travel through the brain using tractography

- to simulate a brain in a computer

- to map out the neurons in the visual system of mammals

to create a virtual lab to look at an animal brain in its entirety when animals are doing complex behavior like foraging

The action potential in the chef's neuron was able to quickly travel from one node of Ranvier to the next so that she could move her arm away from the hot stove. What is this type of rapid transmission known as?

- diffusion

- neurotransmission

- electrostatic pressure

- saltatory conduction

saltatory conduction

If a neurotransmitter increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic cell will send an action potential, the neurotransmitter is said to be

- anatomy.

- inhibitory.

- mandatory.

- excitatory.

- facilitatory.

excitatory.

Shortly after experiencing a natural disaster like an earthquake or hurricane, a person might also be more susceptible to getting the flu or a cold. Which of the following is the study about how thoughts, experiences, and behaviors influence how well one fights off diseases?

- psychoneuroimmunology

- psychophysiology

- behavioral immunology

- immunoneurosience

- behavioral neuroendocrinology

psychoneuroimmunology

Which of the following would be a medical doctor that specializes in neurological disorders like Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease?

- neurologist

- psychophysiologist

- pediatrician

- abnormal psychologist

- clinical neuroscientist

neurologist

A brain slice down the longitudinal fissure from the anterior to the posterior of the brain would produce a

- sagittal

- transverse

- horizontal

- coronal

- bilateral

sagittal

On the surface of the cortex are bumps called _____ and depressions called sulci.

- gendries

- fissures

- protuberances

- peduncles

- gyri

gyri

Before they travel across the synapse to bind with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, chemical messengers are stored in what location in the presynaptic neuron?

- ionotropes

- nodes of Ranvier

- synaptic vesicles

- axons

synaptic vesicles

The axon of one neuron branches several times and creates many synapses to one neuron. The influence of many synapses on the firing rate of a postsynaptic neuron is called

- temporal summation.

- multipolar summation.

- spatial summation.

- graded summation.

- multisynaptic summation.

spatial summation.

Abdul's neuron in the motor cortex of his brain helps his legs move. The neuron has several dendrites so that it can receive input from many sources. What type of neuron is this?

- anion neuron

- unipolar neuron

- multipolar neuron

- bipolar neuron

multipolar neuron

Hyperpolarization is to depolarization as:

- IPSPs are to EPSPs

- APs are to IPSPs

- EPSPs are to IPSPs

- APs are to EPSPs

IPSPs are to EPSPs

The process of neurotransmitter release is referred to as:

- excitation

- synthesis

- expulsion

- metabolism

- exocytosis

exocytosis

In the Contemporary Issues section of Chapter 3, there is a discussion of researchers that have created almost a complete mapping of all the connections of the nervous system of one animal called the

- M. musculus (lab mouse).

- Aplysia californica (sea slug).

- Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly).

- P. torva (flatworm.

- C. elegans (nematode).

C. elegans (nematode).

_____ is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

- Glycine

- Acetylcholine

- Serotonin

- Glutamate

- GABA

GABA

There is more ________ on the inside of a neuron (intracellular) and more ______

on the outside of the neuron (extracellular).

- Na+ CI-

- Na+. K+

- K+ Na+

- Cl- K+

- Na+, Na+

K+ Na+

Postsynaptic potentials (PSP)s

- Increases the probability of an action potential

- Always produce action potential

- Can be caused by neurotransmitter binding to ion channels at the post

synaptic neuron

- Are always inhibitory

Can be caused by neurotransmitter binding to ion channels at the post-synaptic neuron

When do voltage-gated ion channels open along the axon?

- when they are activated by a neurotransmitter or hormone

- when the membrane around them is depolarized to any degree

- when the membrane around them is repolarized to any degree.

- when the membrane around them is repolarized to their threshold potential

- when the membrane around them is depolarized to their threshold potential

when the membrane around them is depolarized to their threshold potential

Which of the following are membrane potentials?

- EPSPs

- IPSPs

- APs

- All of the options

All of the options

Multiple Sclerosis is caused by the destruction of

- Action potentials

- Potassium channels

- Sodium channels

- Myelin

Myelin

The direction of the kinesin from the cell body to the axon terminals is referred to as

- Axonal transport

- Anterior to posterior

- Retrograde

- Anterograde

Anterograde

The _______is (are) in the mesencephalon that houses neurons with the neurotransmitter dopamine. Neurons from this area send protections to several areas of the brain including the striatum

- amygdala

- red nucleus

- periaqueductal gray (PAG)

- fomix

- substantia nigra

substantia nigra

The primary goal of Project MindScope was to map the _____ in mice

- occipital lobe

- auditory system

- vascular svstem

- spinal cord

- visual system

visual system