psych exam 4

urban overload hypothesis

the theory that people living in cities are constantly bombarded with stimulation and that they keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed by it

kin selection

the idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection

altruism

the desire to help another person even if it involves a cost to the helper

diffusion of responsibility

the phenomenon wherein each bystander’s sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses increases

bystander effect

the finding that the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help

prosocial behavior

any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person

norm of reciprocity

the expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future

out-group

any group with which an individual does not identify

in-group

the group with which an individual identifies as a member

empathy

the ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person and to experience events and emotions (ex: joy and sadness) the way that person experiences them

empathy-altruism hypothesis

the idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain

altruistic personality

the qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations

pluralistic ignorance

the case in which people think that everyone else is interpreting a situation in a certain way, when in fact they are not

aggression

intentional behavior aimed at causing physical harm or psychological pain to another person

frustration-aggression theory

the theory that frustration—the perception that you are being prevented from attaining a goal—increases the probability of an aggressive response

dual hormone hypothesis

hypothesis that testosterone relates to dominance-seeking behavior only when the stress hormone, cortisol, is not elevated

deontological thinker

people who believe in absolute moral truths

social cognitive learning theory

the theory that people learn social behavior (aggression or altruism) in large part through observation and imitation of others and by cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs

compassion collapse

the decreasing amount of compassion felt for victims of mass casualties versus the amount they feel for a single victim

hostile aggression

aggression stemming from feelings of anger, with the goal of inflicting pain or injury

weapons effect

the increase in aggression that can occur because of the mere presence of a gun or other weapon

challenge hypothesis

hypothesis that testosterone relates to aggression only when there are opportunities for reproduction

utilitarian thinkers

people who believe that the most moral decision is the one that does the greatest good for the greatest number of people

catharsis

the notion that “blowing off steam”—by behaving aggressively or watching others do so—relieves built-up anger and aggression energy and hence reduces that likelihood of further aggression behavior

instrumental aggression

aggression that is done as a means to achieve some goal other than causing pain

dehumanization

the process whereby we deny another human being their full humanity

ethnocentrism

the belief that one’s own ethnic group, nation, or religion is superior to all others

social identity threat

the threat elicited when people perceive that others are evaluating them as member of their group instead of as an individual

stereotype

a generalization about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members

prejudice

a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group based solely or partly on their membership in that group; it contains cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components

social identity

the part of a person’s self-concept that is based on their identification with a nation, religious or political group, occupation, or other social affiliation

implicit association test

a test that measures the speed with which people can pair a target face (e.g., black or while, old or young, asian or white) with positive or negative stimuli (e.g., the words honest or evil), reflecting unconscious (implicit) prejudices

jigsaw classroom

a classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small, multiethnic groups and making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material

interdependence

the situation that exists when two or more groups need to depend on one another to accomplish a goal that is important to each of them

in-group bias

the tendency to favor members of one’s own group and give them special preference over people who belong to other groups; the group can be temporary and trivial as well as significant

out-group homogeneity

the perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other (homogeneous) than they really are, as well as more similar than members of the in-group

realistic conflict theory

the idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination

normative conformity

the tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill the group’s expectations and gain acceptance

institutional discrimination

practices that discriminate, legally or illegally, against a minority group by virtue of its ethnicity, gender, culture, age, sexual orientation, or other target of societal or company prejudice

discrimination

unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group solely because of their membership in that group

blaming the victim

the tendency to blame individuals (make dispositional attributions) for their victimization, typically motivated by a desire to see the world as a fair place