Stage 8 – Term 2 English Study Notes

Vocabulary flashcards covering punctuation, grammar, literary elements, language devices, writing forms, and visual analysis concepts from the Stage 8 Term 2 English study notes.

Colon

Punctuation mark (:) used to introduce a list, explanation, idea, or dialogue line

Brackets

Round marks ( ) that add extra, non-essential information inside a sentence

Hyphen

Short line (-) that joins words or divides them at line breaks, e.g., mother-in-law

Dash

Longer line (—/ – ) that inserts extra info, shows a pause, or signals a sudden change

Ellipsis

Three dots (…) indicating material left out, hesitation, or a trailing thought

Italics

Right-slanted letters used for titles, emphasis, or special terms

Theme

Central idea or underlying message of a literary work

Setting

Time and place in which a story occurs

Characters

People, animals, or figures who take part in a story’s action

Point of View

Perspective or narrator from which the story is told

Characterisation

Author’s method of revealing a character’s personality and traits

Symbolism

Use of an object/word to represent a deeper idea

Plot

Sequence of events in a story (exposition to resolution)

Exposition

Introductory part of a plot that presents setting, characters, and basic situation

Rising Action

Series of events that build tension leading to the climax

Climax (plot)

Most dramatic turning point toward which the action is directed

Crisis

Moment when characters’ fate is decided; may coincide with or follow climax

Denouement

Final outcome or “untying” of plot threads after the climax

Contrast between Appearance and Reality

Technique where things seem one way but are actually another

Short Story Features

Brief narrative with few characters, limited incidents, short time span, often surprise ending and clear message

Direct Speech

Exact words spoken, enclosed in quotation marks

Indirect Speech

Reported words without quotation marks; pronouns, tenses, and deictics often change

Change of Pronouns

Adjustment of I/you/this, etc., when converting direct speech to indirect

Change of Tenses

Back-shifting verb tenses in reported speech (e.g., am → was)

Yes/No Question (reported)

Indirect form begins with if or whether, e.g., She asked if I was coming

Wh-Question (reported)

Indirect form keeps the wh-word and follows normal statement order

Imperative in Reported Speech

Converted to object + to-infinitive, e.g., He told me to sit down

Modal Verb (reported)

would, could, might, should, must, ought to usually stay the same in indirect speech

Punctuating Direct Speech

Quotation marks, capital first word, comma before the quote, new line for each speaker

Declarative Sentence

Makes a statement and ends with a full stop

Interrogative Sentence

Asks a question and ends with a question mark

Imperative Sentence

Gives a command or request; ends with full stop or exclamation mark

Exclamatory Sentence

Expresses strong emotion and ends with an exclamation mark

Subject (grammar)

Person/thing the sentence is about; usually before the verb

Predicate

Part of the sentence that tells what the subject does, is, or has

Object

Person/thing that receives the action of the verb

Comparative Adjective

-er or more form used to compare two items (taller, more careful)

Superlative Adjective

-est or most form used to compare three or more items (tallest, most careful)

Demonstrative Adjective

this, that, these, those used before nouns to point out specific items

Adjectival Order

Typical sequence: opinion, size, shape, age, colour, origin, material, purpose

Personal Pronoun

I, you, he, she, it, we, they (subjects) or me, him, us, etc. (objects)

Possessive Pronoun

Shows ownership: my/mine, your/yours, his, hers, ours, theirs

Reflexive Pronoun

Pronoun ending in ‑self/-selves that refers back to subject (myself, themselves)

Demonstrative Pronoun

this, that, these, those used in place of a noun being pointed out

Indefinite Pronoun

Refers to non-specific people/things: someone, few, all, each

Interrogative Pronoun

Used to ask questions: who, whom, whose, what, which

Relative Pronoun

who, whom, whose, that, which introducing a relative clause

Emotive Language

Word choice designed to create an emotional response

Subjectivity

Personal, biased viewpoint influenced by feelings

Objectivity

Fair, unbiased perspective considering all sides

Fact

Statement that can be proven true

Opinion

Personal belief or judgement not universally verifiable

Denotation

Literal dictionary meaning of a word

Connotation

Emotional or figurative associations a word carries

Bias/Prejudice

Unfounded preference or dislike; a one-sided judgement

Propaganda

Media technique using biased or selective information to influence opinion

Sensationalism

Exaggerated language used to shock or excite for attention, often at expense of accuracy

Concord (Subject-Verb Agreement)

Rule that verb form must agree in number and person with the subject

Collective Noun

Word for a group that takes a singular verb (team, flock, class)

Phrase

Group of words without a finite verb; not a complete thought

Clause

Group of words with a subject and finite verb; can be independent or dependent

Simple Sentence

Contains one independent clause

Compound Sentence

Two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction

Complex Sentence

One independent clause plus at least one dependent clause

Compound-Complex Sentence

Two or more independent clauses plus at least one dependent clause

Preposition

Word showing relationship of noun/pronoun to another word in terms of place, time, direction, etc.

Formal Preposition Placement

Keeping the preposition before its object in questions/clauses (To whom…)

Informal Preposition Placement

Allowing the preposition to end a clause or question (Who… to?)

Homonym

Word with same spelling and pronunciation but different meanings (bat/bat)

Homophone

Word that sounds the same as another but differs in spelling and meaning (pair/pear)

Homograph

Word spelled the same as another but with different pronunciation and meaning (lead/lead)

Pun

Play on words exploiting multiple meanings or similar sounds for humour

Poise & Body Language

Confident stance and purposeful gestures that support spoken communication

Prepared Speech

Scripted talk rehearsed in advance with clear structure

Impromptu Speech

Unprepared talk delivered with minimal planning

Debate Speech

Formal argument presented as part of a team to support or oppose a motion

Mood

Atmosphere or feeling a text evokes in the reader

Tone

Author’s attitude toward the subject or audience

Style

Author’s unique way of using language, structure, and devices

Diction

Word choice that affects meaning, tone, and clarity

Register

Level of formality and language suited to audience and purpose

News Report

Objective, third-person account of a current event with headline and factual details

Investigative Report

Formal document presenting findings, conclusions, and recommendations of an inquiry

Review

Critical evaluation of a book, film, performance, etc., giving personal opinion

Advertisement

Persuasive message promoting a product, service, or event

AIDA

Advertising formula: Attention, Interest, Desire, Action

Dialogue (writing form)

Written conversation between characters, formatted with speaker names and colons

Diary Entry

Personal dated reflection written in first person, often informal and past tense

Interview (writing)

Q-and-A format presenting questions and detailed responses from an interviewee

Subject (visual analysis)

Main person, object, or theme shown in an image

Vector (visual)

Visual line that directs the viewer’s eye through an image

Angle (visual)

Position of the viewpoint (high, low, eye-level) suggesting power or emotion

Camera Shot

Distance of the lens from the subject (close-up, medium, long) used for effect

Satire

Use of humour, irony, or exaggeration to criticise social or political issues

Irony

Expression of meaning by using words that signify the opposite; often humorous

Sarcasm

Mocking or contemptuous form of irony

Word Play

Clever manipulation of language, such as puns or double meanings