Unit 0 psych

psychology

scientific study of behavior and mental processes. A researcher studies how stress impacts memory recall in students during exam week

Psychodynamic/psychoanalytic perspective

focuses on unconscious processes and childhood experiences. Jordan has recurring nightmares about being left alone, which his therapist links to unresolved childhood separation anxiety

Cognitive perspective

focuses on mental processes like memory, perception, and problem solving. A student improves their test performance by using mnemonic devices to organize information more effectively

Social-cultural perspective

focuses on how society and culture shape behavior and thinking. Lucy takes off her shoes before entering a friend’s house, reflecting cultural traditions from her upbringing

Behavioral perspective

focuses on observable behaviors and the role of learning on behaviors. A child cleans their room more often after receiving praise and stickers from their parents

Evolutionary perspective

examines how natural selection influences behavior. Noah prefers sweet and fatty foods because his ancestors who sought calorie-dense meals were more likely to survive famines

Biological perspective

focuses on the influence of biology on behavior. Hannah struggles with depression because of low serotonin levels in her brain

Humanistic perspective

emphasizes personal growth, self–actualization, and free will. Sofia joins a volunteer program because it gives her a sense of purpose and helps her feel closer to her ideal self

Biopsychosocial perspective

integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in explaining behavior and mental processes. Maya's anxiety is understood through her family history (biological), her tendency to overthink (psychological), and pressure from classmates (social)

Confirmation Bias

we seek out information that supports our preexisting beliefs. Alex only reads sources that emphasize the importance of World War II

Cultural Norms

shared beliefs, values, and behaviors within a society. Bowing instead of shaking hands when greeting someone

Experimenter Bias

bias when researchers unintentionally influence results to confirm their beliefs. A researcher favors evidence that supports the effectiveness of their pill

Hindsight Bias

tendency to view past events as more predictable than they were. “I knew the test would have lots of WWII questions”

Overconfidence

overestimating one's knowledge or abilities. Before getting test results, he was certain he scored a perfect score

Peer Review

experts evaluate research for accuracy, originality, and merit. A journal editor uses peer reviews to decide whether a study is publishable

Experiment

research design involving manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect. Methods include random assignment and control groups

Case Study

in-depth investigation of one person or a small group. Jean Piaget observed a few children to study development

Correlational Study

examines relationships between two or more variables when experimentation isn’t possible. Research on whether privacy settings relate to personality traits

Meta-Analysis

combines and analyzes data from multiple studies. A study analyzed treatments for depression by comparing results from many trials

Naturalistic Observation

observing behavior in natural settings without interference. Observing that humans laugh more in social situations than when alone

Survey

collecting self-reported data on opinions, thoughts, or behaviors. 1 in 2 people across 24 countries report belief in alien civilizations

Cross Sectional Study

compares different groups at one point in time. A study comparing how running affects blood sugar across age groups

Longitudinal Research Studies

tracks the same individuals over a long time. Studying how the human body changes from childhood to adulthood

Hypothesis

a testable prediction about a relationship between variables. People who are sleep-deprived will remember less

Falsifiability

the ability for a hypothesis to be proven false. The data disproved the sleep-memory hypothesis

Operational Definition

a specific statement of how variables are measured in a study. Intelligence is defined as what an IQ test measures

Replication

repeating a study to confirm its findings. A study is repeated with new participants and materials

Independent Variable

the factor that is manipulated in an experiment. Room temperature when testing study focus

Dependent Variable

the outcome measured in an experiment. Test performance in different room temperatures

Confounding Variable

external factors that might affect results. Student preparation may affect test scores regardless of temperature

Participant

someone who voluntarily takes part in a study. Students who agree to join a psychological experiment

Sample

a subset of a population used in research. Surveying 100 students from a university

Population

the full group being studied. All juniors at Glenbard South High School

Representative Sample

a sample that accurately reflects the larger population. Survey splits warehouse workers evenly across departments

Random Sampling

every member of a population has an equal chance of being chosen. A name generator selects survey participants

Random Assignment

placing participants into groups randomly. Flipping a coin to assign control or experimental group

Convenience Sampling

selecting participants based on availability. Surveying people at a shopping mall

Sampling Bias

flawed sampling method that misrepresents the population. Asking 9th graders about highway speed limits

Reliability

consistency of a measurement or test. An introversion test gives similar results when retaken

Generalization

responding similarly to similar stimuli. Someone allergic to apples assumes they're allergic to all fruit

Experimental Group

the group that receives the treatment. Students whose screen time is reduced

Control Group

the group that does not receive the treatment. Students with no change in screen time

Placebo Effect

results caused by participants’ expectations. Feeling better after taking a sugar pill

Single Blind Procedure

participants don’t know if they received treatment or placebo. Participant unaware if their pill has active ingredients

Double Blind Procedure

neither participants nor researchers know who got the treatment. Both researcher and participant don’t know which pill was taken

Social Desirability Bias

giving answers perceived as socially acceptable. Telling a doctor you exercise more than you do

Quantitative Research

research using numerical data. A Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree)

Structured Interviews

interviews using preset, close-ended questions. Asking everyone “Do you believe the world is round?”

Qualitative Research

research using descriptive, non-numerical data. Interviews to understand causes of aggression

Likert Scales

a scale used to measure attitudes or opinions. A 5-point satisfaction scale

Positive Correlation

variables increase or decrease together (0 to +1). More study time is associated with higher GPA

Negative Correlation

one variable increases while the other decreases (-1 to 0). More TV watching is linked to lower grades

Correlation Coefficients

numerical values showing strength and direction of a relationship. +.7 is strong positive, -.3 is weak negative

Illusory Correlation

perceiving a relationship that doesn’t exist. Believing a minority group commits more crimes based on a few incidents

Institutional Review

ethics boards that evaluate research risks and benefits. IRB approval required before research can begin

Animal Research

using animals to study human or animal health. Testing HIV treatments on primates

Informed Consent

informing participants before they agree to join a study. Telling participants about anesthesia risks beforehand

Informed Assent

agreement from individuals not legally able to consent. A child agrees to participate in research

Protection from Harm

ensuring participants are not physically or emotionally harmed. Offering support resources for stressful experiments

Confidentiality

keeping participant information private. Psychologists avoid interacting with clients on social media

Deception

intentionally misleading participants during a study. Telling them they’re in a group when they’re alone

Debriefing

explaining the study to participants afterward. Revealing the purpose and any deception used

Anonymity

ensuring participants can’t be identified. Participants use pseudonyms in online studies

Self Report Bias

inaccuracies in participants’ self-reported data. Underreporting weight on a survey

Research Confederates

actors who appear as participants but are part of the study. Asch’s conformity study used confederates giving wrong answers

Mean

the average of a data set. Total scores divided by number of values

Median

the middle score in a data set. Half of values fall above and half below

Mode

the most frequently occurring value. Appears more often than any other

Range

difference between highest and lowest values. If scores range from 10 to 100, the range is 90

Standard Deviation

shows how spread out scores are around the mean. IQs typically within 10 points of the average

Percentile Rank

percentage of scores below a specific score. 85th percentile = better than 85% of others

Regression Towards the Mean

tendency for extreme scores to move closer to average over time. Very low test scores likely won’t happen again

Normal Curve

symmetrical bell-shaped curve of traits like IQ. Most scores cluster near the mean

Skewness

asymmetry in a data distribution. Positive skew = long tail right; negative skew = long tail left

Bimodal Distribution

data with two peaks or modes. Restaurant with lunch and dinner rushes shows two peaks

Effect Size

shows the practical importance of a result. Large effect size = meaningful finding

Statistical Significance

likelihood that results are not due to chance. New therapy significantly outperforms the old

Scatterplot

graph showing relationship between two variables. Dots may show positive, negative, or no correlation

Correlation

when two variables move together. More study time often correlates with better grades

Causation

one variable directly causes change in another. High sugar intake causes a rise in blood sugar

Directionality Problem

can’t tell which variable affects the other. Stress and sleep affect each other, but unclear which comes first

Third Variable Problem

another factor causes both variables being studied. Population size affects both churches and crime rates