Englisch Abitur

What was Colonization?

• The first permanent English settlement was established in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607 -> over time, 13 British colonies were established along the eastern seaboard of North America

• These Colonies developed unique economies and cultures, but they remained politically and economically tied to Britain

• Many colonists sought religious freedom, economic opportunities, or a fresh start.

• As the colonies grew, tensions emerged over British taxation and governance. The colonies resented being taxed by Britain (“no taxation without representation”) without having representation in Parliament

What was the Mayflower Compact?

• an agreement created by the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower before they settled in Plymouth, Massachusetts

• It established a framework for self-governance and cooperation among the settlers

• the settlers affirmed their allegiance to the English king

• they stated their intent to establish a colony for the glory of God, the advancement of the Christian faith, and the honor of their country

• they agreed to form a “civil body politic” to enact just and equal laws for the general good of the colony 

• All settlers pledged to abide the laws and work together for the success of the colony

  => This compact was significant as one of the first example of self governance in the New World

What was the American Revolution?

• After events like the Stamp Act (1765), the Boston Massacre (1770), and the Boston Tea Party (1773), colonists began organizing resistance against British rule

• Armed conflict began in 1775 at Lexington and Concord. The Second Continental Congress convened to manage the war effort

• With the help of allies like France, the colonies defeated Britain in 1783, securing independence through the Treaty of Paris

What was the Declaration of Independence?

• a foundational document in American history, adopted by the Continental Congress

 -> all American citizens are created equal with certain unalienable rights, among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness:

• Life: The right to live and be free from unjust harm

• Liberty: The right to freedom, including personal freedoms and protection from oppressive government control

• Pursuit of Happiness: The right to seek fulfillment, success, and well-being in one’s own way, as long as it doesn’t infringe on the others’ rights

=> This phrase was inspired by Enlightenment thinkers, especially John Locke, who emphasized natural rights. However, while it set a powerful ideological foundation, it didn’t originally apply to everyone (e.g. enslaved people and women were excluded). Overtime, it has influenced U.S law, civil rights, and democratic values 

• All men are created equal: principle of equality (did not include African-American nor women)

• governments derive their power from the consent of the governed and when a government becomes destructive, the people have the right to alter or abolish it

• The Enlightenment was a European intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism, advocating for progress, liberty, and secular thought, challenging traditional authority and promoting scientific inquiry

=> it declared the thirteen American colonies’ independence from British rule and its tyranny.

How did the Nation grow?

• Initially, the new nation was governed by the Articles of Confederation, but this system was weak. The federal government had little power to tax or enforce laws, leading to instability

• In 1787, leaders met in Philadelphia to draft a stronger framework for government. The result was the U.S Constitution, which established a federal system with three branches of government (executive, legislative, judicial) 

• To address concerns about individual freedoms, the first 10 amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, were added to the Constitution in 1791

• George Washington became the first president in 1789, setting many precedents for the office

• Over the 19th century, the U.S grew westward through purchases (e.g the Louisiana Purchase in 1803), treaties, and conflict, eventually spanning from coast to coast

What was the American Constitution?

• written in 1787 and ratified in 1788 and is the foundational legal document of the United States Government

• establishes the framework for the country’s political system and outlines the rights of its citizens 

• The introduction outlines the constitutions purposes: to establish justice, ensure domestic tranquility, provide for defense, promote general welfare and secure liberty for future generations

• The separation of powers into three branches (legislative, executive, judicial) prevents any single branch from becoming too powerful

    Article I: The Legislative Branch

    -> establishes congress (House of Representatives and Senate) as the lawmaking body

    -> outlines powers such as taxation, regulation of commerce, and declaring war

    Article II: The Executive Branch

-> defines the presidency and vice presidency, their election process, powers, and duties

    Article III: The Judicial Branch

    -> establishes the Supreme Court and other federal courts

    -> grants judicial power to interpret laws and ensure they align with the Constitution

What were the Bill of Rights and Amendments?

• guarantees fundamental rights such as freedom of speech, religion, and the press, as well as protections against governmental abuses

• The Constitution has been amended 27 times to adapt to societal changes 

• Voting rights gradually expanded to include non-property-owning white men, signaling a shift toward great participation. The abolition of slavery (13th Amendment), citizenship rights (14th Amendment), and voting rights for Black men (15th Amendment) after the Civil War further expanded democracy

• The 19th Amendment (1920) granted women the right to vote, marking a milestone in democratic inclusion

• Bill of Rights (First 10 Amendments): These amendments, ratified in 1791, are foundational to American liberties and include: 
  First Amendment: Guarantees freedom of religion, speech, the press, assembly, and the right to petition the government.

• Second Amendment: Protects the right of the people to keep and bear arms

What was Manifest Destiny

• a 19th century belief in the United States that it was the nation’s destiny to expand its territory across the North American continent

• This idealogy was used to justify territorial expansion

• first popularized in 1845 by journalist John L O’Sullivan -> he argued that it was America’s mission to spread democracy and civilization across the continent

• controversial, as it often disregarded the sovereignty and rights of indigenous people

• America is a country that is superior to all the countries -> America took whatever land they wanted (because of Manifest Destiny) 

• Promised the American Dream: idea that anyone can succeed in the United States through hard work, determination, and initiative

What was the American Civil War?

• conflict between the Union (North) and the Confederacy (South) over issues including slavery, states’ rights, and sectional tensions

• The main cause was slavery, especially its expansion into new territories. The Southern states wanted to maintain and expand slavery, while the North opposed its spread

• After Abraham Lincoln, who opposed slavery’s expansion, was elected in 1860, 11 Southern states seceded from the U.S. and formed the Confederate States of America.

• The Union won in 1865 when Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant 

• The War ended slavery (13th Amendment), strengthened the federal government, and the the South economically and physically devastated

Landmarks of American History

15th Century: 10 million natives living in the USA

16th-17th Century: European Colonies are founded on the East Coast

1620: Puritans arrive in Cape Cod -> Pilgrim fathers, founding of Plymouth Plantation

1765-1783: American Revolution, 13 American colonies reject British government

1773: Boston Tea Party - a protest by the American Colonists against the British government. They staged the protest by boarding three trade ships in Boston Harbor and throwing the ships’ cargo of tea overboard into the ocean

1775: War of Independence (American Revolutionary War) begins 

July 4th 1776: Declaration of Independence 

1783: The Treaty of Paris - Britain officially recognizes its former colonies as an independent nation

1789: Implantation of the US Constitution 

1791: The Bill of Rights is issued; amendments ensure civil rights

Until 1850s: exploration of the West Frontier; the idea of Manifest Destiny making the US stretch from East to West Coast

1861-1865: Civil War between the Confederate States of America (south) and the US (north)

1863: Emancipation Proclamation - declared all enslaved people in Confederate states to be free

1917: USA enters WWI

1930: Great Depression

1941: USA enters WWII after Japanese attack

1945: American B29 bombers drops atomic bomb on Hiroshima

1947-1991: The Cold War

1950-1953: The Korean War

1955-1975: The Vietnam War

2001: 9/11 Attack

2009: Barack Obama is the first African American president

2020: Covid Pandemic; Nationwide protests break out following the killing of George Floyd

2022-2023: Supreme Court ended federal abortion protections, Republicans took the House, Democrats held the Senate, U.S sent military and financial support to Ukraine

2024-2025: Donald Trump won a second term, Mass deportations sparked protests

History of Slavery

• 1619-1808: Approximately 300.000 people were shipped from Africa to work as slaves in the US

• They mainly lived in the southern states and worked on the cotton, tobacco, and sugar cane plantations

• After 1808: no more slaves were sent to the US, but many were born in the country

• 1833: The National Anti-Slavery society, an abolitionist movement was founded

     -> moral questions about slavery and the treatment of Blacks as second class human beings triggered the Civil War 

• 1865: Slavery was abolished after the Civil War

• 1868: The 14th Amendment of the Constitution gave black Americans the status of Citizens

• 1870: All male citizens were given the right to vote, regardless of their race

• 1890: Jim Crow Laws were introduced -> Slavery is replaced by segregation and racism

What was the Civil Rights Movement?

• 1950s/1960s were the peak years of the American civil rights movement, where African Americans demonstrated and fought for human civil rights

• forced the U.S Government to guarantee them certain constitutional rights e.g the right to vote and to attend public facilities

1954: NAACP wins a famous court case, ruled that it was illegal to have separate schools for different races

1955: Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white passenger and therefore was arrested and convicted; Montgomery bus boycott took place until segregation on buses was lifted

1961: Freedom Riders: black and white civil right activists travel in interstate busses through the segregated south to peacefully protest

1963: Martin Luther King Jr’s “I have a Dream” speech -> spoke of his hope that one day all Americans would be equal

1964: Civil Rights Act - ensuring voting rights to African Americans

1965: Voting Rights Act - prevents use of literacy tests as a voting requirement

1968: Martin Luther King Jr is assassinated

1970-1976: As a measure to end segregation in schools, white children were taken by bus to schools in black areas and vice versa

1972: Laws were passed to encourage positive discrimination for ethnic minorities in the fields of employment -> Blacks were still disadvantages and underprivileged

 -> affirmative action (positive discrimination, ghetto situation, schooling segregation) -> black people’s reality: instead of middle class, higher education, well-paid jobs, suburban homes <=> underclass, urban ghettos, unemployment

Positive Discrimination: the practice or policy of favoring individuals belonging to groups regarded as disadvantaged or subject to discrimination

What were the Jim Crow Laws?

• Laws to enforce segregation -> officially to protect the blacks but in reality laws were used to maintain the unfair treatment and limitation of the rights of the blacks

• separate entrance into public buildings, separate restrooms and drinking fountains, blacks had to sit in the back of trains and buses

• Civil Rights Act of 1964: Repeal of all remaining Jim Crow Laws

Who was Malcom X?

• wanted to become a lawyer -> teacher told him not realistic enough for him

• became a criminal

• believed in Allah (joined the organization: Nation of Islam) -> minister, national spokesman

• quickly became famous, media magnet because of his charisma, drive, conviction

• goal: independent state for Blacks only (goal of Nation of Islam) 

• used violence “let’s make war” (against non-violent Martin Luther King Jr) 

Who was Martin Luther King Jr?

• Civil Rights leader and activist

• led non-violent protests to fight for the rights of all people

• he hoped that America and the whole world would become a “color-blind society” 

• led the Montgomery Bus Boycott ( => his first Civil Rights Action) 

Black Lives Matter?

• international movement founded by three women of color after a colored teenager was killed

• killing of the African American George Floyd in 2020 by the Minneapolis Police caused a series of protests and civil unrest

• Demonstrators wanted to peacefully draw attention to police violence/racism against African Americans prevailing the USA

• The handling of the USA met with international criticism and BLM movement also found supporters in many European countries

• controversial monuments associated with slavery and colonialism were knocked down and smeared

• racial discrimination still exists though it is not institutionalized like it was before

• Blacks in the US still have a higher risk of unemployment, poverty and imprisonment)

Stereotypes of Americans?

• typical lifestyle of the habitants of the US is characterized by Optimism and Activity

• it combines ideals with a pragmatic attitude

• Characteristics strongly pronounced individualism, love of freedom and the pursuit of happiness (life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness in the Declaration of Independence) and Prosperity

• the political form of government is a liberal democracy

• Idea: everyone can improve their standard of living through determination, hard work and talent (American Dream), ideally following the motto “rags to riches”

• critque: excessive consumption, waste of raw materials, exploitation of human labor, environmental pollution

• attitude and character of US citizens: very (foreign) friendly, helpful, open-minded, freedom-loving, linked between generations

What is Migration and the American Dream?

• Migration has always been central to the American Dream

• Immigrants have long come to the US seeking freedom, opportunity, and a better life, but their experiences have varied over time

• Immigration: the movement of non-native people into a country in order to settle there

• human migration began with movement of the earliest humans out of Africa into the Middle East -> then to Asia, Australia, Europe, Russia and the Americas

• Theories of Immigration distinguish between “push” and “pull” factors

What were Push and Pull Factors?

Push

17th-18th Century:
-> starvation; expensive food

-> no money

-> unemployment

-> war; bad economic situation

-> no freedom 

19th Century:

-> social, political, religious conflicts

-> not enough land to raise food

-> forced military service

-> economic, political chaos

20th Century:

-> World War I

-> unemployment

-> fascist dictatorship takeover

Pull

17th-18th Century:

-> fertile soil and good climate; good harvest

-> welfare; free space

-> promised land; Declaration of Independence

-> known for freedom and equality (work offer to enrich economy)

-> freedom (e.g religion)

19th Century:

-> chronic labor shortage

-> cheap fertile land

-> importing slaves was no longer legal

-> gold rush

-> civil war (ended slavery) 

20th Century:

-> American Dream, from Rags to Riches

What are general reasons for migration?

• economic reasons (wage rates, infrastructure, job opportunities)

• educational reasons (school system, colleges)

• religious reasons (oppression, discrimination, persecution)

• political reasons (“”, war, ignorance of human rights, non-demo)

Historical perspective

• 19th and Early 20th Century: Waves of European immigrants (Irish, Italians, Germans) came seeking jobs and religious freedom

• Ellis Island Era (1892-1954): Millions arrived, particularly from Southern and Eastern Europe

• place where most immigrants set foot on American soil

• Island of hopes but also island of tears for several immigrants

• Post-1965: Immigration laws shifted allowing more Latin American and Asian migration

What were Asian Immigrants?

• Chinese Exclusion Act - 10 year Ban on Chinese immigrants

• Executive Order 9066 - Asian people were forced to leave their homes and to live in American concentration camps

• kept silent - silent racism/nobody talks about it

• Model Minority Myth - people think of Asian immigrants that they are educated well and they don’t need help (stereotype)

• Asians don’t really take action (= no protests)

• not easy to unite all asian immigrants

• stay invisible, activism itself is a foreign thing for asians

• The nail that sticks out gets hammered down

What was illegal immigration of Hispanics to the US

• Hispanics: people of Latino-American origin

• illegal immigrants: non-citizens who enter the country without permission or stay beyond termination date of their visa 

• many of them cross border from Mexiko illegal

• illegal immigrants tend to be less educated than other sections of the US populations -> half of them don’t finish high school

• large numbers work in construction, production, installation, repair all over the country

• many come for economic reasons but also political oppression

What are Modern Trends and Challenges?

• Many immigrants now come from Latin America, Asia, and Africa

• Millions enter without legal status, leading to political debates over border security, asylum, and citizenship

• Young undocumented immigrants (Dreamers) seek legal protection to work and stay in the U.S

• Immigrants fill vital jobs in industries like agriculture, tech, and healthcare, but also face challenges like discrimination and wage gaps

Does the American Dream still exist for Immigrants?

-> For some, it’s alive - many achieve success and stability. For others, economic inequality, immigration restrictions, and social barriers make it harder to attain

What is the American Dream?

• a metaphor expressing one’s hopes and positive expectations when starting over in America

• James Truslow Adams’ idea was that it is the idea of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement

• National Ethos of the US: an equivalent for a set of ideals (democracy, rights, liberty, opportunity, equality) that includes the opportunity for prosperity and success with few barriers; commitment, ambition and hard work allow on upward mobility

• Term coined by Adams in 1931 in the times of the Great Depression (1929-1930s) to put people back on track

What is the History of the American Dream?

• The land itself as a dream to start over: counterpart of old European world order full of social, political and economic born into fixed societies; religious persecution, economic hardship, being unfree and paying tributes to a feudal lord

-> Rhetoric of opportunity:
- work hard and improve your position in life 

• work hard for the pursuit of life, liberty and happiness as a reward for a virtuous life

-> American Exceptionalism:

• American taking a special position compared to the EU

• British settlers as Gods who have chosen people to build a model society to the New World -> Justification to impose values on other societies (Manifest Destiny)

Political, social, cultural justifications: free people start from scratch (bible + enlightenment), build classless society, reduce states impact on citizens, develop an unexplored continent, value individualism, community spirit, ambition, social perfection through god

What is the question of Identity in American Society?

• Living in the U.S means navigating a complex identity shaped by culture, race, ethnicity, class, and personal values. 

• The question of “Who am I in America?” is influenced by history, politics, and social expectations

• The U.S is a melting pot, but also a salad bowl - people blend into mainstream culture while maintaining their unique background

• Race still plays a major role in shaping experiences, with movements like Black Lives Matter and debates over affirmative action and reflecting ongoing struggles

• Many immigrants and first-generation Americans wrestle with dual identities, balancing heritage and assimilation

• Polarization has made political beliefs a defining part of identity, sometimes straining relationships

• The “American Dream” is tied up to upward mobility, but economic inequality affects access to opportunity

• Gender roles are evolving, and LGBTQ+ rights remain a point of activism and policy changes

What are Challenges and Opportunities?

• Some feel fully American, while others face discrimination or exclusion

• Younger generations challenge norms on race, gender, and work-life balance

• Success is no longer just about money but also personal fulfillment and well-being

What are Values and Beliefs?

Fundamental, inalienable and God-given rights

• Liberty: personal and religious freedom

• Pursuit of Happiness: success, wealth, optimism and belief in “anticipated success, individuality of pursuing one’s dreams and realizing one’s goals

• Equality: equal rights for men and women/equal rights for people with different ethnicities

• Life: leading a secure life protected by the law, government and military

Patriotism

• importance of national symbols

• strong identification with one’s nationality and pride in being American

Puritanism/Protestant work ethic

• The Puritan belief that hard work, discipline, self-improvement and responsibility lead yo worldly success

• believing that one is exceptional, a member of “god chosen people” (Manifest Destiny)

An open and dynamic society

• being generelly open to new ideas and inventions/immigrants of any nationality if they contribute positively to the country

a) Melting Pot image:

• Individuals are melted into a new race 

• The various ethnics do not retain their cultural heritage but amalgamate into one new nation

b) Salad Bowl image: politically more correct

• individuals come together but keep their own shape 

• The verious ethnicities living in the US adding their own traditions, culutral values, do not merge into one (unity in diversity)

What is the American Dream as a Manifestation of Individualism?

• centers on the belief that every individual has the right and ability to achieve success, prosperity and upward mobility through hard-work, determination, and personal initiative

• emphasizes personal freedom, self reliance, and the pursuit of one’s unique goals, often tied to material success, home ownership and social mobility

• reflects the idea that individuals can shape their destiny regardless of their background

Conformity vs Individualism?

Conformity involves aligning with group norms, promoting social cohesions, predictability, and belonging but may suppress creativity and individuality. It thrives in collective cultures and ensures societal stability (e.g Japan, China)

Individualism prioritizes personal freedom, self-expression, and innovation but can lead to isolation and conflict with group interests. It is celebrated in individualistic culutres and drives progress (e.g USA, Europe)

Vision and nightmares?

American Dream:

• Anyone can achieve anything if they work hard (e.g house, family, good job)

• From Rags to Riches

• Self-made millionaires

• hard work to success

• Equality

• Independence: debate on Gun control

• NRA: 2nd Amendment: right to wear arms and gun ownership deters crime

Nightmare:

• The negative aspects connoted with the American Dream or the inability to achieve the dream

• Most people will never reach their dream, especially poor people

• can quickly lose everything; homeless overnight; no welfare or health insurance

• Slavery: 

• 1865-1890s: segregation/ discrimination/ police brutality against black Americans

• Gun control increased gun deaths and violence (e.g school shootings)

What is the Regulation of Gun Ownership?

• Gun regulation in the U.S is one of the most divisive political issues, balancing the Second Amendment rights with public safety concerns

• Gun Rights (Pro-2nd Amendment)

-> Guns are essential for self-defense and protection from government tyranny

-> Restrictive laws punish law-abiding citizens rather than criminals

-> some argue mass shootings result from mental health issues, not gun access

• Gun Control (Pro-Regulation) 

-> More guns correlate with higher gun violence rates

-> Stronger regulations (like universal background checks) could reduce mass shootings

-> Many countries with strict laws have lower gun-related deaths than the US

American Nightmare?

• the American Dream is the reason for many to immigrate to the USA, as they believe in the idealistic image of the American Dream

• In reality, there are many hurdles that turn the American Dream into the American Nightmare

• military actions of the US foreign policy

• the poor education and health care system 

• the lack of perspective of many immigrants and poorer people

What are Ambitions and Obstacles?

Ambitions: The Promise of Individual Success

• The idea that anyone can rise from poverty to wealth through hard work

• The ability to make independent choices in career, lifestyle, and beliefs

• The U.S fosters a culture where self-made success is celebrated (e.g., Silicon Valley, small businesses)

• Higher education if often seen as a path to better opportunities

Obstacles: Barriers to Achieving the Dream

• Rising costs of living, student debt, and wage stagnation make upward mobility harder

• Race, Gender and immigrant status can limit access to jobs, housing, and education

• Lack of universal healthcare and weak worker protections leave many vulnerable

• The pressure to hustle and achieve success often lead to stress and exhaustion

=> While self-reliance is central to the American Dream, real success often depends on social networks, government policies, and economic conditions. The balance between personal effort and structural support remains a key debate in American society. Individual fate is shaped by both individual choices and societal structures. While some achieve the American Dream, others find it harder to economic and social barriers. 

What are Social, Cultural, Political and Economic Changes?

Social Changes

• Industrial Revolution (18th-19th centuries): Urbanization and the rise of a working class

• Abolition of Slavery (1833): The Slavery Abolition Act ended slavery in the British Empire

• Women’s suffrage (1918-1928): Women over 21 gained the right to vote, advancing gender equality

• NHS Creation (1948): Universal healthcare transformed public health and welfare

• Multicultural society (20th century): Post WWII migration reshaped Britain’s cultural identity

Cultural Changes

• Victorian Era (1837-1901): Strict moral values, literature, and technological progress flourished

• British Invasion (1960s): Bands like The Beatles and The Rolling Stones made Britain a cultural powerhouse

• Modern Media (20th-21st century): Global influence in film, television, literature

Political changes

• Magna Carta (1215): Early foundation of parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy

• Expansion of the Franchise (19th-20th centuries): Broader voting rights through the Reform Acts and Representation of the People Acts

• Devolution (1998): Creation of parliaments/assemblies in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland

• Brexit (2016): The UK voted to leave the EU, reshaping its global role

Economic changes

• Industrial Revolution: transition from agrarian to industrial economy, making Britain a global economic leader

• Empire Decline (20th century): loss of colonies marked an economic shift from imperial reliance

• Post-War recovery (1945): Nationalization of industries and the welfare state

What is the British Empire?

• Early Expansion (16th-18th Century): Britain established colonies in North America, the Caribbean, and India

• Height of the Empire (19th Century): Britain dominated the global trade and controlled vast territories, including Canada, Australia, India, and large parts of Africa

• Decline and Decolonization (20th Century): After World War II, many colonies gained independence, leading to the empire’s collapse. The Commonwealth of Nations emerged as a legacy

Brexit?

• 2016: UK votes to leave the EU

• 2017: UK triggers Article 50, starting the exit process

• 2019: Multiple delays and political debates over the exit terms

• 2020: UK formally leaves the EU on January 31, entering a transition period

• 2021: A new trade deal takes effect, officially ending the UK’s integration with EU laws

• New border checks and rules complicated UK-EU trade

• Brexit deepened divisions in the UK, especially in Scotland and Northern Ireland

• The UK ended free movement with the EU, introducing a points-based system

Being British?

National Identity:

• cultural heritage: rooted in history, from the Magna Carta to the monarchy, alongside contributions in literature, music and sports

• Diversity: Modern Britain is shaped by multiculturalism, with immigrant communities enriching its identity

• Regional identities: Distinct English, Scottish, Welsh and northern Irish identities coexist with “Britishness”

• Values: Democracy, fairness and tolerance are central 

National Stereotypes:

• Politeness: seen as overly polite, apologetic and great at queuing

• Tea-Lovers: drinking tea is a national obsession

• Class-conscious: accents and behaviors linked to social class

• Humor: famous for dry, sarcastic and self-deprecating humor

What happened during the Elizabethen Age?

• refers to the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and is considered a Golden Age. It was part of the Renaissance epoch in Europe.

Cultural Achievements:

• Literature: This was the Era of William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe and Edmund Spenser, whose works transformed English drama and poetry

• Theatre: The Rise of public theaters like the Globe allowed theatre to flourish and reach all social classes

Exploration and Expansion

• Explorers Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh expanded England’s influence, establishing trade routes and beginning England’s colonial ventures

• Drake’s circumnavigation of the globe (1577-1580) and the establishment of the first colony in America (Virginia) were significant milestones

Religious Stability

• Elizabeth restored Protestantism after the turmoil of her predecessors, creating the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, which attempted to unify Catholics and Protestants

• Her leadership brought relative religious peace, though tensions with Catholic Spain remained high

Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588)

• England’s victory against Spain’s powerful navy solidified its position as a growing maritime power and boosted national pride

Economic Growth 

• The economy thrived with increase trade, agricultural advancements, and the early rise of capitalism -> London became a bustling commercial hub

Science and Knowledge

• Advancements in navigation and astronomy supported exploration

• Renaissance ideas inspired new thinking in art, science and philosophy

What was the Migrati

What was the Immigration to Great Britain?

• Britain’s booming economy and the open-door policy of recent governments has resulted in the largest influx of Immigrants since WWII

• Immigrants from new entrants to the European Union -> Poland, Slovakia, the Baltic States

• Most of the immigrants came from the countries of the Commonwealth -> particularly the Indian subcontinent

• British Muslims have made a big contribution to British Culture and everyday life 

• Asian restaurants + corner shops have made Indian lifestyle and habits known and appreciated among the British

• no integration of a growing number of British Muslims

• no speaking English at homes of British Muslim families -> unemployment among British Muslims higher -> some employers find it difficult to employment

What are Approaches to Mulitculturalism?

What are effects of the colonial past?

• Many former British colonies adopted British-style governance, including parliamentary democracy and common law (e.g., India, Canada, Australia)

• The Commonwealth of Nations maintains ties between the UK and former colonies

• Borders drawn by the British (e.g., in Africa and the Middle East) have led to conflicts and territorial disputes

• The empire helped Britain industrialize rapidly, but often at the expense of colonial economies

• Former colonies struggled with extraction-based economies that were designed to benefit Britain

• London remains a global financial hub, partly due to its colonial-era trade networks

• English is widely spoken worldwide due to British colonial rule

• Many former colonies retain British customs, legal systems, and educational structures

• Cricket and football remain popular sports in many ex-colonies (e.g., India, the Caribbean, and Australia)

• Britain’s colonial past shaped modern attitudes on immigration and race, leading to tensions over post-colonial migration

• Large populations from former colonies (e.g., Indians, Pakistanis, Jamaicans) now reside in the UK, enriching its multicultural identity

• Britain still plays a role in former colonies through diplomacy, aid, and trade agreements

• Commonwealth ties continue to shape UK foreign relations, through some nations are moving toward full independence from the British monarchy

Why is Great Britain a multicultural society?

• home to 37 ethnic groups

• more than 300 languages are spoken 

• British history = history of foreign influences

• Language = mixture of domestic and foreign accents

• Reasons for Immigration:

   - India: able to move freely (saw Britain as a motherland)

   - Caribbean: came to work in low-paid jobs (poverty to “wealth”)

   - Irish: hunger (e.g Potato crisis)

   - Poverty, persecution, hunger

   - War, Religion

   - Being British is a legal status citizenship’

What are pros and cons of a multicultural society?

Pros:

Ethnic diversity enriches a society

-> introduces a wide variety of food, music and fashion 

Ethnic food becomes part of their national culture

-> Chicken Tikka Masala, Curry

for businesses, foreign workers bring a new perspective into the workplace

-> can lead to a greater creativity and productivity through different approaches found in different cultures

Multiculturalism can lead to a more peaceful society

-> people are more accepting of differences, unlike isolationist countries that are unused to foreigners and therefore more suspicious and intolerant 

Cons:

A country’s national identity and traditions will be lost if they come too diluted with those of other cultures

when cultures are quite different, they cannot integrate into British society

-> they create division

people from different cultures do not always share the same values as the rest of the society

-> can leas to conflict and racial tension (religion/traditions/gender concepts)

people who do not identify with their host country can become isolated

-> they live within their communities and are not integrated in society

Integration vs Assimilation?

Integration = the action or process of successfully joining or mixing with a different group of people

Assimilation = adopting the ways of another culture and becoming part of a different society

Integration?

• two way process -> mutual compromise

    - requires mutual respect from all parties

    - influences from both cultures -> both must change a bit

    - accepting the minority culture into the majority culture

    - requires acceptance of the laws and ways of the host country

    - minority does not have to give up on their laws and ways -> pre-condition: host country is willing to accept foreign culture as equal

=> process of making a salad where individual ingredients, with their different colors and sizes contribute to the beauty of the dish (Salad Bowl Theory)

Pros:

• ethnic variability

• preservation of cultural diversity (art, food, technology)

• preservation of one’s own identity

• social justice for immigrants

• help for immigrants

• improvement of the labor market (more workers)

Cons:

• possible overpopulation

• if integration fails, crime increases

• formation of cultural ghettos

• cultural conflicts possible

• stereotyping

• highlights differences -> can cause hate

Assimilation?

• one way direction (minority)

   - minority adapts culture of host country to become a full of part of the society

   - giving up or modifying the minority culture to become acceptable to the majority culture

• minorities sometimes critical about assimilation

   - they will integrate into our society as if our way is somehow better or superior

=> Process of making a soup, where the ingredients lose their identity as they are melted together (Melting Pot Theory) 

Pros:

• possibility to have a new start in life

• no conflicts (based on religious differences, etc)

• help for immigrants

• as homogenous mass stronger against outward influences

• equality

Cons:

• just an illusion

• costs (language courses, school, etc.)

• less jobs 

• loss of values, traditions, cultures

• people are expected to give up their own identities -> can increase hate against the government or people

What are Human Dillemmas?

Definition:

• special/unconventional situation

• psychological and/or physically challenging

• conflict between different emotions

• very individual

• violent or non-violent

Examples of emotional extreme situations:

1. Extreme anger: can make one blind and irrational; almost always has negative outcomes when it is taken on another person

2. Extreme happiness: being very happy about something; combined with an adrenaline rush

Examples out of literature:

• Othello: between love and jealousy

• My Son the Fanatic: between his own belief and values of being western orientated, the love to his son and the will to understand him and the lack of understanding Ali’s new beliefs being contrasting to his own 

Examples of today’s society:

• Racism: being between the solidarity to own society and the conviction to be open and polite

• Arranged marriages: Married girl/boy = between wish to please the will of the parents and the wish to choose freely out of love

• Death: between thankfulness for the death, one being without pain and the mourning for the last person

General examples:

• natural disasters

• risk actions

• war

• death

• racism

Being different?

Being physically different?

having different skin color (Othello)

having a specific outward appearance (being thicker (body shape), always wearing black, goth etc.)

having different eyes (Asian people)

Being psychologically different?

having a different sexual orientation

feeling as a different sex/gender

having a different culture/traditions

having a different religion/belief

thinking different (own opinion)

aversions against people (racism)

What are Gender Issues?

• Sex: a person’s identity based on their physical characteristics

• Gender: Sense of who you are and feel as guy, girl, or something else, as opposed to what your physical characteristics, genes and hormones indicate

• Sexuality: who you are attracted to sexually or romantically 

• Feminine: qualities that are considered to be womanly 

• Masculine: qualities that are typical for men

Gender Roles: Traditions expectations still influence careers, family life, and leadership. Women are often seen as caregivers, while men dominate high-status jobs

Gender Inequality: Women face a pay gap, workplace discrimination, and underrepresentation in politics and business. Gender-based violence and societal expectations add to inequality

=> Progress: Laws and activism have improved rights, but fully equality remains a challenge

What are traditional Gender Roles and Binaries?

Historically, gender was understood as a rigid binary: male and female -> Men were expected to be providers, protectors, and leaders, while women were caregivers, homemakers and nurturers

Societies enforced strict norms through laws, religion, and customs. Deviating from these norms often led social stigma or punishment

Literature, media, and politics reinforced traditional gender roles, with little recognition of gender diversity

Women had fewer rights in education, work and politics. Gender roles were legally enforced through policies like coverture laws (which made married women legally dependent on their husbands)

Modern understanding acknowledges that gender exists on a spectrum, including non-binary, gender queer, and transgender identities

Scholars and activists emphasize that gender is shaped by culture and society rather than being purely biological

Feminist and LGBTQ+ movements have pushed back against traditional roles, advocating for gender equality and representation

Media, literature, and politics now include diverse gender identities, challenging stereotypes and reflecting a broader range of experiences

More women participate in the workforce, and men are increasingly involved in caregiving

What are changing beauty ideals (sonnets from Shakespeare)

• In many sonnets Shakespeare celebrates physical beauty as a source of administration, often comparing the beloved to nature’s perfection

• Shakespeare acknowledges the fleeting nature of physical beauty, emphasizing that time eventually faded all things, including appearances

• Shakespeare also touches on beauty’s deeper, spiritual or inner qualities

• He critiques exaggerated beauty ideals, stating his lover’s features are not “perfect” but are still loved deeply

What is Gender in Othello?

• Women are seen as property 

• In men’s view, only power of women is sexual power -> considered to be the evil which must be resisted by men

• Men seem free to be able to refer to women as whores and get away with it

• Iago -> sees women as sexual objects who shall fulfill their functions as housewife and mother

• Cassio -> believes women are either whores, who deserve no respect but to get teases or virgins, who are deserved to be treated with respect and like a lady

• Othello -> positive view toward women, loves Desdemona for her mind instead of her body

• Desdemona is aware of her (powerless) position in society

• Emilia more feminist, wants to be treated equally and sees women as stronger than men

• Women get reduced by her reputation and their status

• Iago and Othello kill their wives as punishment for honesty

What is Gender Issues in the Arts?

• Women and gender minorities are often underrepresented in leadership roles, major exhibitions, and awards, through recent initiatives aim to address this imbalance

• Traditional gender roles and stereotypes persist in artistic themes, but contemporary works increasingly challenge these norms and explore diverse gender identities

• Gender biases can affect funding opportunities and critical recognition, leading to disparities in career advancement within various art forms

• Ongoing activism and feminist art criticism are driving efforts to reshape the industry, ensuring a broader, more inclusive perspective in the arts.

What are Stereotypes and Gender Identity?

Stereotypes

Women: housewife, has a man, kids, dresses feminine, cooking, cleaning

Men: makes money, good father, has a wife, works physical, makes decisions, no weakness, no feelings

Gender Identity

• central component of an individual’s identities in his or her gender

• unlike the biological determined sex, gender and gender role are often perceived as being societal structures

• Society holds a set of stereotypical ideas about how “real” men and women should; what they should look like, what they are capable of

• The Media still presents images of “typical” men and women keeping these concepts alive

What is Media?

• Institutions or organizations that produce and distribute information or entertainment to the public

• The main types of Media: Print media, broadcast media, social media 

What are Pros and Cons of Media?

Pros:

• keeps people updates on important events

• provides knowledge on various topics

• links people to global issues and events

Cons:

• Bias: can present one-sided views

• sometimes spreads false information or misleading news

• too much negative news can cause stress

What are Developments in the Media?

Media in the 20th century:

• print media, newspapers, listening to the radio, watching news on televisions

• televisions were an important source of news and information and entertainment

• traditional news sources are increasingly being replaced by digital and online news sources

The changing face of the media:

• The rise of digital technologies has fundamentally changed how we communicate with each other

• mobile media has created new opportunities for us to become actively involved in sharing, remixing and creating new content -> able to participate in the news gathering process and can help spread stories around the world

• Journalists and news agencies can also use crowdsourcing to ensure that they have access to all kinds of personalized content

• X lack of control regarding copyright -> infringing copyright is a crime

Social Media and Politics?

• gained importance as a forum for politics and political activism -> platforms have dramatically changed the elections work

• Politicians can reach out to younger votes

• Politicians can customize their campaign to address the needs 

• Platforms also offer politicians immediacy, they can instantly find out people respond to certain ideas

• Politicians no longer have to rely on mass media, they can connect with them directly in a more personal way

• Platforms have also enabled people to draw attention to politically charged situations

Advertising?

• People are used to seeing adverts on billboards, on television or newspapers

• consumers are being bombarded with emails and online adverts that have been specially customized according to users search history

• Visual marketing and crowdsourcing are now popular with advertisers as they can get consumers to spread the message and share experience

Pros and Cons of Social Media?

Pros:

• Allows communication with friends, family and communities

• provides quick updates on news, trends and global events

• offers educational content, tutorial and resources

• gives individuals a voice to share ideas, art and opinions 

Cons:

• can lead to excessive screentime and distraction

• causes anxiety, depression and low self esteem due to comparison

• allows harassment and online abuse

• Personal Data can be collected, shared or hacked

• spreads fake news, rumors and misleading content quickly

• creates pressure to maintain a perfect lifestyle

-> we use phones so much that it makes us feel like they are part of our brain

-> we use them to find information and do things quickly, but they also make it easier for others to see what we’re doing and try to control what we think or buy

-> people say we are like cyborgs because we mix our minds with technology

-> while devices are helpful, they also change how we think and live

Line between reality and fabrication?

• Media, whether news, social platforms, or entertainment, often shapes our perception of what is real by selecting and framing events in particular ways

• The rise of misinformation and fake news illustrates how data can be manipulated to serve specific agendas, leading audiences to question the veracity of even trusted sources

• Reality TV and social media often mix entertainment with real-life events, creating a hybrid that can distort perceptions of everyday life

• Through strategic storytelling, selective editing, and targeted messaging, both political and commercial interests can manipulate public opinion, often for profit or power 

The critical approach to communication strategies?

• involves analyzing how messages are crafted to serve particular interests, often revealing power dynamics and underlying agendas

• Examining how language, visuals, and framing are used to shape perceptions. For instance, advertising or political campaigns often use selective storytelling to promote specific ideologies

• Assessing how different groups interpret messages and how these communications reinforce or challenge existing social hierarchies, stereotypes, or biases

• Investigating who controls the media channels and resources and how that control influences which voices are amplified or marginalized. This includes exploring the roles of media conglomerates (larges companies that own many different types of media businesses), political entities, and cultural institutions 

• Evaluating the implications of communication strategies that may blur the line between information and manipulation, prompting audiences to be more discerning about the sources and intentions behind the messages they receive

Globalization?

Globalization: is a term used to describe how trade and technology have made the world into a more connected and interdependent place

Current Energy Landscape:

• The world is still heavily dependent on fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), which account for over 80% of global energy consumption

• Renewable energy sources (solar, wind, etc.) are growing rapidly but face challenges in scalability, infrastructure, and storage

• Energy security has become a major geopolitical issue, with countries competing for control over resources such as oil and rare minerals used in green technologies (e.g., lithium for batteries)

Challenges we face: 

• Overconsumption of natural resources, deforestation, and water shortages 

• Climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution caused by industrialization

• Many developing nations lack access to stable electricity, creating economic and social disparities

Economic integration

• Globalization has created interconnected economies through international trade, multinational corporations, and financial markets

• Free trade agreements facilitate economic growth but also create dependence on foreign markets

Pros and Cons of Economic Globalization

Pros: 

• Increased access to goods and services, lower consumer prices

• Faster technological advancements and innovation

• Economic growth and job creation in emerging markets

Cons:

• wealth inequality, while globalization has lifted millions out of poverty, it has also widened the gap between rich and poor

• Outsourcing and job loss in developed countries due to cheaper labor abroad

• Environmental degradation from mass production and overconsumption

Major Global Conflicts and Their Causes

• Conflicts over land, resources, and political idealogies (e.g., Russia-Ukraine war, China-Taiwan tensions)

• Economic crises often lead to unrest

Role of International Organizations in Peacekeeping

• United Nations: Maintains international peace through diplomacy, sanctions, and peacekeeping missions

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization: A military alliance aimed at collective defense, mainly in Europe and North America

• European Union: Uses economic and diplomatic measures to promote stability 

• African Union and other regional groups: Help manage regional conflicts and economic integration

Challenges in Conflict Resolution

• Superpowers often intervene in conflicts for strategic or economic gain, sometimes escalating rather than solving tensions

• War, forced migration, and human rights abuses create long-term instability

• Digital attacks, disinformation campaigns, and economic manipulation are becoming new forms of conflict

Opportunities for Global Cooperation

• Diplomatic Agreements: Peace treaties, nuclear disarmament pacts

• The role of the UN, NGOs, and mediators in negotiating peace

• Trade agreements and economic development projects that encourage peace through shared prosperity