AP&D Midterm Study!!

The central mantra of biology

Sequence = Structure = Function

Physiology

study of body functions as explained in terms of cause-and-effect sequences to elucidate the purpose of a body process and its underlying mechanism.

anatomy

the study of structure

Levels of body organization

Chemistry/molecular

Cellular
• Tissue
• Organ
• System
• Organism

What does the cell do?

Take up nutrients
– Provide E
– Eliminate
– Synthesize
– Exchange
– Have intra-/inter-cellular mobility
– Respond to environment
– Reproduce

— its structure = its function

Organs of different types that function together in a system are called

organ systems

Organ systems

• Circulatory

• Digestive

• Respiratory

• Urinary

• Skeletal

• Musclar

• Integumentary

• Immune

• Nervous

• Endocrine

• Reproductive

Homeostasis

Maintenance of a stable internal environment RELATIVE external environment

Nucleus

• Houses the cell’s genetic material DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

  • DNA encodes genes and makes up chromosomes

DNA

Monomer: nucleic acid (made upon): sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate with a base

Bases are Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) (A binds with T) (G binds with C)

Transcription

DNA gets transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA), ribonucleic acid version of DNA code

• Utilizes Uracil (U) instead of thymine

mRNA leaves the nucleus via nuclear pores and into the ER (endoplasmic reticulum)

Nuclear pores

Allows for mRNA to leave the nucleus to continue transcription process in ER

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Membranous network filled with fluid where proteins and lipids are made and modified for use by the cell

Rough ER

contains ribosomes

Ribosomes

utilized for translation and creation of proteins, can be free floating or on rough ER. they are made upon rRNA and read mRNA code 3 nucleotides at a time (codons) allowing for strings of amino acids to create proteins

Smooth ER

involved in packaging and discharging those proteins and lipids to other places in the cell (think of this as a warehouse)

Golgi body/complex

used modification and further packaging before it’s sent to its
destination (think of a post office)

Vesicles

spherical membranous organelles filled with stuff

exocytosis

act of RELEASING stuff is exocytosis

endocytosis

act of TAKING IN stuff

pinocytosis

act of taking in stuff (water) “cell drinking”

Lysosomes

filled with digestive enzymes that break-down old cell parts or foreign intruders like bacteria or viruses

Peroxisomes

filled with enzymes that detoxify wastes and other foreign compounds and produce hydrogen peroxide

Mitochondria

evolutionarily derived from ancient bacteria that joined with early eukaryotic
cells to live together symbiotically, each helping the other. They convert food to energy in the
form of ATP

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

energy source for cellular work

Terminal phosphate bond of ATP is split, yeilding ADP, inorganic phosphate, and energy

Aerobic respriation

uses O2 to make 32 ATP

Anaerobic respriation

yield only 2 ATP and lactic acid

Centrioles / centrosome

form microtubules that radiate out (spindle) and
help in dividing the cell in two equal parts during mitosis

Cytosol

Is the gel-like fluid which fills the cell and keeps the rest of the cell’s organelles moist and suspended.

Altogether, the cytosol and organelles around the nucleus make up the cytoplasm.

cytoskeleton

consists of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments, and help support the structure of the cells

Cell/plasma membrane

Fluid-like, changing mosiac of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates that encloses each cell, separates ICF from ECF (barrier), selective barrieer that allows specific molecules to move across the membrane and prevent others from moving

• Made upon a phospholipid bilayer

  • hydroPHOBIC interior, hydroPHILIC surfaces

Phospholipid

has a NEGATIVELY charged POLAR and HYDROPHILIC head

has UNCHARGED NONPOLAR HYDROPHOBIC TAILS

Membrane protein functions

channels for passage of small ions
– carriers for transport of substances
– docking-marker acceptors for secretory vesicles
– membrane-bound enzymes
– receptors for responding to chemical messengers
– cell adhesion molecules that hold cells together

Carbohydrates near the outer membrane

Bound to proteins (glycoproteins) and lipids (glycolipids).
– Membrane carbohydrates serve as “self” recognition markers.
– Involved in tissue growth

Collagen

forms flexible nonelastic fibers or sheets that provide tensile strength.

Elastin

allows tissues to stretch and then recoil

Fibronectin

promotes cell adhesion and holds cells in position

Desmosomes

“velcro” like cell adhesion

Tight junctions

leak prevention

Gap junctions

direct cell-to-cell signaling with electricity

Membrane permeability

Substance can cross the membrane

Membrane impermability

substance cannot cross the membrane

Membrane selective permeability

can sometimes cross the membrane, ususally through channels

Unassisted passage

molecule passes through membrane slowly, influnced by sixe or lipid solubility

Assisted passage

requires energy via ATP to travel throuugh special channels

Facilitated diffusion

Carrier smoves particle DOWN its concentration gradient

Active transport

carrier moves the particle AGAINST its concentration gradient

• Prime example is Na+/K+ pump

Diffusion

Substances travelling from high concentration to lower concentrations in order to equal out concentrations

Osmosis

Water diffusion

Hypertonic

water moves out of the cell into the solution outside, cell shrinks

Isotonic

Cell is equal in concentration to the solution

Hypotonic

Water moves into the cell, causing it to inflate

Membrane potential

All plasma membranes are electrically polarized, with the inside of the cell being more negative than the outside, memrbane potential is around -70 mV

Sodium Potassium Pump

Utilizes energy to push 3 sodium ions out of the cell and bring in 2 K+ ions, making a net charge of -1 and creating a net negative charge inside of cell

The heart is made upon

cardiac muscle (which is self-excitable),

action potentialss spread throughout the heart through

gap junctions

Circulatory system serves as…

the transport system of body

What are the components of the circulatory system

heart (dual pump), blood vesels (passageways), the blood (the transport medium)

pulmonary circulation

between heart in lungs, occurs in RIGHT side of the heart (recievs blood from systemic and pumpits it to pulmonary circulation)

blood is deoxygenated, so it is sent ot lungs to pick up O2

systemic circulation

occurs between the heart and other body systems, occurs on the LEFT side and recievs blood from pulmonary circulation and pumpts it to systemic circulation, delivers oxygenated blood to body tissues

The heart

• Divided into right and left halves (the sides are mirrored!)

  • Act as separate pumps

  • Pump blood at the same time

  • Pump same volume of blood

  • Right side pumps with LOWER pressure

  • Heart muscle on the LEFT side is THICKE than muscle on RIGHT

  • Self excitable, able to do its own rythimic contractions

Atrium

upper heart chamber (present on both sides)

Ventricle

lower chamber (present on both sides)

Arteries

carry blood AWAY from the heart

Veins

RETURN blood to the heart

Septum

musclar wall that prevents mixture of blood from the two sides

Valves

when pressure is greatier BEHHIND the valve, it OPENS, when rpessure is greater in FRONT of the valve, it CLOSE (prevent backflow)

Atrioventriclular valves

positioned between the atrium and ventricle, prevents backflow of blood from ventricle into atria during ventriclar contraction,

Tricuspid valve

Right AV valve

Bicuspid valve

Left AV

Semilunar valve

Lie at the juncture where major artery leaves the ventricle

Prevents blood from flowing from ateries back into ventricles when the ventricle relaxes

Aortic valve

left S valve

Pulmonary valve

right S valve

Contractile cells

99% of cardiac muscle cells that do the mechanical work of pumping

Autorythmic cells

initiate and conduct action potentials that promote musclar contraction

Pacemaker activity

cardiac autorhythmic cell membrane potential slowly polarizes between action potentials

Initiate action potentials that spread throughout the heart to trigger rythmic contractions

Sinoatrial node (SA node)

in right atria near opening of superior vena cava

pacemaker of the heart!

Atrioventricular node (AV node)

small bundle of cells located at base of right atrium near septum

Tachycardia

heart rate more than 100 bpm

Bradycardia

heart rate less than 60 bpm

Arrythmia

any variation from the normal rhythmn and sequence of ex

Atrial fibrillation

rapid, irregular, uncorrdinated depolarizations of the atria with no definate P waves

Ventricular fibrillation

uncoordinated depolarizations of the atria with no detectable pattern or rythm

Heart Block

comes from defects in the cardiac conducting system

Heartbeat

mechanical events are brought about by the rhythmic changes in electrical activity

the heart CONTRACTS to empty and relaxes to fill

Systole

cardiac muscle contraction

Diastole

cardiac muscle relaxation

heart sounds

Valve closing creates heart sounds

First is the closing of the AV valves

Second is the closing of aortic and pulmonary valves

Blood equation + relationships

F = P/R (flow is proportional to pressure gradient, flow is inversely proportional to vascular resistance)

Blood pressure gradient

Blood flows from high to low concentration, down a pressure gradient

Resistance in blood

viscosity- thickness of a fluid indicating flow rate

vessel length - the longer the vessel, the greater the resistance

vessel radius - the smaller the radius, the greater the resistance

Vascular Tone

state of partial condition that establishes a baseline of anteriolar resistance

arteriolar vasodilation

decreased resistance and increased blood flow through the vessel

arteriole vasoconstriction

increased resistance, decreased flow

Local (intrinsic controls) and extrinsic controls

controls arteriolar tone

capillaries

thin walled extensively branched vessels, surface area for exchange is maximized, diffusion distance minimized

capillary exchange

individual solutes are exchanged by diffusion down concentration gradient, lipid soluble substances pass directly through endothelial cells lining a capillary, water soluble substances pass through water filled pores between endothelial cells, plasma proteins do not escape

Hypertension

blood pressure above 140/90

primary hypertension

unknown cause, majority of cases

secondary hypertension

occurs secondary to primary issue