Confucianism (11/17)

What is the primary focus of Chinese religion?

The here and now, bringing practical benefit to the individual, family, or community, with less emphasis on abstract beliefs.

What is syncretism in the context of Chinese religion?

The practice where one can belong to many religions at the same time without concern, happily mixing and matching religious traditions

What are the four types of supernatural beings in Chinese religion, from highest to lowest level?

1. Tian (Heaven)

2. Gods and Goddesses

3. Functional or Local Deities

4. Spirits of Dead Ancestors.

Describe the nature of Tian (Heaven).

The most distant and all-encompassing deity, often viewed as an impersonal deity identified with the laws of nature, a "bundle of forces" that govern lives, rather than a personal god.

What are Functional Deities?

Deities that have a particular function, such as healing the sick or making crops grow.

Why do the Chinese pay more attention to the lower levels of deities?

Because they are the ones that are going to affect them most immediately (e.g., spirits of dead ancestors).

In what century did Confucius live?

He was born in the 500s and 400s BCE

What historical period was this time of "great turmoil" in China known as?

The 100 Schools Period, where many schools of thought arose to solve problems of politics and society.

What was the original Chinese name for the school of thought that became Confucianism?

The Ru School

What did Confucius believe was the golden era of China?

The period of the Zhou dynasty hundreds of years earlier, when rulers were righteous and society was peaceful and harmonious

What book preserves Confucius's teachings?

The Analects (selected sayings).

What were Confucius's main intellectual interests (focus)?

Ethics and politics, more than purely religious things like ritual

What is the most basic virtue that Confucius elevated?

Filial piety (respecting one's parents/elders)

What are the Five Relationships later Confucians discussed?

1. Child to Parent (filial piety)

2. Citizen to Ruler

3. Wife to Husband

4. Younger Brother to Older Brother

5. Friend to Friend (the only equal relationship).

What is Confucius's version of the Golden Rule?

Don't do to others what you wouldn't want done to you (a negative formulation).

What is the highest virtue in Confucian thought?

Ren, best translated as humanity or humaneness

What is Li?

Obeying customs of conduct in one's society, including religious customs, proper etiquette, and manners.

What did Confucius believe was the best way to inculcate virtue and have a good government?

To have a virtuous ruler who exudes a moral charisma, affecting people "in the way that the wind causes the grass to bend".

What is the core concept of the Mandate of Heaven?

A ruler has the right to rule by the permission of Heaven (Tian), as long as the ruler is good, kind, and committed to the welfare of the people.

What happens if a ruler loses the Mandate of Heaven?

Heaven withdraws its mandate, and the kingdom would suffer from natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes, droughts), the ruler could be defeated by enemies, and potentially overthrown.

How was the Mandate of Heaven broadened by Confucius's time?

The concept was applied to each and every individual; if you are good, you will have the Mandate of Heaven and live a good life.

What did Confucius state about his own mission and Heaven?

He said that Heaven knew him and had given him some sort of mission

What is the ambiguity in Confucius's view of Heaven?

It is unclear if Confucius viewed Heaven as a personal being (like the Abrahamic God) or an impersonal being that functions like a natural law of the universe.

In what century did Mencius (Mengzi) live?

The 300s BCE

In what century did Xunzi live?

The 200s BCE.

What was Mencius's key philosophical difference with Xunzi?

Mencius believed all human beings are born inherently good (with virtue), needing to cultivate it, while Xunzi believed human beings are born evil/bad and must cultivate goodness.

What example did Mencius use to prove humanity's inherent goodness?

The example of a child falling into a well, which he claimed would instantly move all observers to alarm and automatic compassion.

According to Mencius, why do people become bad?

Because of external pressures of everyday life (e.g., need to make a living, competition), which cause a deterioration of their natural goodness.

According to Xunzi, what are natural human instincts?

They are prone to envy, hatred, valuing physical pleasure, and acting out of self-interest.

For Xunzi, why should a self-interested person want to be moral?

Because no one wants to live in chaos; people become moral out of their own self-interest to create an orderly society.

How did Xunzi differ from Confucius and Mencius in governing?

He put more emphasis on rules, laws, rewards, and punishments to train people to be good, following from his view that people are born bad.

Was Xunzi ambiguous about Heaven's nature?

No. He clearly stated that Tian is an impersonal being and harshly criticized the idea of a personal God who communicates or responds to wishes.

What dynasty first united China (in 221 BCE)?

The Qin dynasty

Which dynasty took over in 206 BCE and ruled for over 400 years?

The Han dynasty

Which Han emperor made Confucianism central to his government?

Emperor Wu.

What prerequisite did Emperor Wu establish for government office?

Only Confucians could hold government offices.

What texts were added to the Confucian corpus during the Han period?

The Five Classics.

Why were the Five Classics important, even if scholars doubt Confucius wrote them?

Confucians came to believe that Confucius had either written or edited them, adding to the authority of the tradition

What institution did Emperor Wu establish that was critical for the future of Confucianism?

Academies/institutions for Confucians to study and teach the Five Classics to students.

How did people get government jobs for the next 1,800 years in China?

By passing a series of permanent, statewide exams based on the Confucian classics.

What was the irony of the Confucian exam system?

A system dedicated to instilling moral behavior (virtue and li) ended up instilling immoral behavior due to the desperation to pass the exams (cheating and abuse were rampant).

How did Confucius's image evolve after the Han dynasty?

It became more grandiose; he was seen as an emperor-figure whose biography was embellished with miracle stories, and people began to conduct religious ceremonies and offer sacrifices in his honor

How was Confucius treated in Confucian temples?

He was revered as a deity (a divine being/god), and people would go to the temples to pray to him for things like help finding a partner or growing crops.

What were the two main religious rivals to Confucianism during this period?

Taoism and Buddhism.

Why did Confucianism survive the rivalry with Taoism, even when some emperors favored Taoism?

The government exam institution (civil service exams) was still based on Confucian texts.

What was a major Confucian objection to Buddhism's ideal life?

The ideal of monasticism and celibacy was seen as outlandish because it was antithetical to filial piety (you need children to show respect to parents).

What did Confucians object to about Buddhist monks' lifestyle?

That they were monastics who didn't work and lived off the charity of the community, which went against the Chinese ideal of being a contributing member of society (practicability).

How did Confucianism respond to these rivals?

It became adaptable and started absorbing ideas from both Taoism and Buddhism.

What two nearby countries absorbed Confucianism?

Korea (in the 300s) and Japan.

In which of these countries was Confucianism less important than other traditions (Buddhism and Shinto)?

Japan

What is the name of the new phase of Confucianism that began around the year 1000?

Neo-Confucianism (meaning "new" Confucianism).

What new area of focus did Neo-Confucianism introduce?

Metaphysical and highly philosophical issues, which was partly due to the influence of Buddhism and Taoism