Cognitive Psychology Exam 3- Study Set

Conceptual knowledge enables us to do what?

Recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties

Concept

Mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions

Categorization

The process by which things are placed into groups called categories

Why Categories Are Useful

Help to understand individual cases not previously encountered. "Pointers to knowledge".” Provide a wealth of general information about an item. Allow us to identify the unique characteristics of a particular item

Definitional Approach to Categorization

Determine category membership based on whether the object meets the definition of the category. Does not work well, since not all members of everyday categories have the same defining features.

Family resemblance

Items in a category resemble one another in a number of ways

Prototype

An average representation of the "typical" member of a category.

The Prototype Approach

Membership in a category is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category

The Prototype Approach- High prototypicality

A category member closely resembles the category prototype. EX. "Typical" member" for category "bird" = robin

The Prototype Approach- Low prototypicality

A category member does not closely resemble the category prototype. EX. For the category "bird" = penguin

There is a strong positive relationship between prototypicality and what?

Family resemblance. Items in a category that have a large amount of overlap have high family resemblance. Low overlap = low family resemblance

Typicality effect

Prototypical objects are processed preferentially

The Exemplar Approach

Concept is represented by multiple examples (rather than a single prototype)

The more similar a specific exemplar is to a known category member?

The faster it will be categorized (family resemblance effect)

The Exemplar Approach explains what effect?

Typicality effect. Easily takes into account atypical cases. Easily deals with variable categories

Prototypes or Exemplars?

May use both. Exemplars may work best for small categories. Prototypes may work best for larger categories.

Hierarchical Organization

To fully understand how people categorize objects, one must consider properties of objects and learning and experience of perceivers.

Evidence That Basic Level Is Special: Going above basic level →

Large loss of information

Evidence That Basic Level Is Special: Going below basic level →

Little gain of information

Conceptual Knowledge- Definition

Mental representations that organize our understanding of objects, events, and ideas.

Concepts- Definition

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or ideas (e.g., "birds," "vehicles").

Concept Types- Natural Concepts

Formed through experience, e.g., "rain"

Concept Types- Artificial Concepts

Defined by rules, e.g., "square"

Categorization- Definition

The process of assigning items to categories based on shared features. Reduces cognitive load—we don't treat every object as unique.

Definitional Approach to Categorization- Definition

Categories are defined by necessary and sufficient features.

Definitional Approach to Categorization- Problem

Many real-world categories lack strict definitions (e.g., "games" vary widely). Works for rigid concepts (mathematics) but fails for fuzzy ones (emotions).

Prototype Approach to Categorization- Definition

Categories are represented by a "best example" (prototype). New examples are compared to the prototype; closer matches = better category members.

Prototypes- Definition

The most representative example of a category. Affects reaction times in categorization tasks (typical items recognized faster).

High vs. Low Prototypicality- Effect

High-prototypical items are named/recognized faster (typicality effect).

Family Resemblance

Category members share overlapping features but no single defining trait. Challenges the definitional approach.

Typicality Effect- Evidence

Reaction-time experiments support prototype theory. Demonstrates the cognitive efficiency of prototypes.

Priming / Priming Effects

Prior exposure to a stimulus influences later responses to related stimuli.

Priming / Priming Effects- Semantic priming

Based on meaning (e.g., "cat" primes "dog").

Priming / Priming Effects- Repetition priming

Prior exposure speeds recognition (e.g., seeing "apple" twice)

Exemplar Approach to Categorization- Definition

Categories are represented by stored examples (exemplars) rather than a prototype.

Advantage of Exemplar Approach

Accounts for variability (e.g., "birds" include robins, penguins, and ostriches).

Prototypes vs. Exemplars- Prototypes Key Point

Single, idealized average. Efficient but may ignore diversity.

Prototypes vs. Exemplars- Exemplars Key Point

Multiple real examples. More accurate for atypical cases but cognitively taxing.

We likely use both. Prototypes for [blank], exemplars for [blank].

speed; precision

Hierarchical Organization

Categories are nested in levels (broad → specific). Balances generality and specificity. Reflects how knowledge is structured in the brain.

Levels of Categories- Superordinate

Broad (e.g., "furniture"). Shared by many categories but lack detail.

Levels of Categories- Basic

Most commonly used (e.g., "chair"). Optimal balance—informative yet easy to identify.

Levels of Categories- Subordinate

Specific (e.g., "recliner"). Detailed but less efficient for everyday use.

Basic Level Being Special- Why?

Fastest to identify and name. Strikes a balance—specific enough to be useful, general enough to apply widely.

Children learn what level of words first?

Basic

Visual imagery

"Seeing" in the absence of a visual stimulus.

Mental imagery

Experiencing a sensory impression without actual sensory input.

What was the imageless thought debate about?

Whether thinking is possible without mental images.

What is paired-associate learning?

Method where participants learn associations between two items, then tested on their ability to recall one item when presented with the other.

What is the conceptual peg hypothesis (Paivio)?

Memory is better for words that evoke mental images.

What did Shepard & Metzler (1971) study using mental chronometry?

Participants mentally rotated objects to check for matches.

Mental scanning

Creating a mental image and scanning it in the mind.

What did Kosslyn (1973) find about mental scanning?

Longer distances in images took more time to scan (supports spatial imagery).

What did Pylyshyn (1973) argue about imagery?

It's propositional (abstract symbols), not spatial.

What is the imagery debate?

Whether imagery is propositional (symbolic) or depictive (picture-like).

What did Perky (1910) find about imagery vs. perception?

People mistook real pictures for mental images.

What brain area shows overlap in perception and imagery?

Visual cortex (but imagery has less activation).

How does TMS support imagery's link to perception?

Disrupting visual cortex slows both imagery and perception (Kosslyn, 1999).

What is unilateral neglect in imagery?

Ignoring one half of the visual field in both perception and mental images.

What is the method of loci?

Placing images at locations in a mental spatial layout to improve memory.

What is the pegword technique?

Associating items with concrete words to aid memory using vivid imagery.

Comparing Imagery and Perception

Relationship between viewing distance and ability to perceive details. Imagine small object next to large object. Quicker to detect details on the larger object.

Mental walk task

Estimating distances between imagined objects. Takes longer for "farther" objects (Kosslyn, 1978). Implication was that imagery mimics spatial perception.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Decreases brain functioning in a particular area of the brain for a short time. If behavior is disrupted, the deactivated part of the brain is causing that behavior.

R.M.

Damage to occipital and parietal lobes. Could draw accurate pictures of objects in front of him. Could not draw accurate pictures of objects from memory (using imagery).

C.K.

Inability to name pictures of objects, even his own drawings, in front of him. Could draw objects in great detail from memory (using imagery).

Visual Imagery- Definition

The mental representation and manipulation of visual information in the absence of sensory input. Used in memory, problem-solving, and navigation (e.g., imagining a route).

Historical Context- Early Views

Imagery was central to thought (Aristotle, Locke).

Behaviorism's Role in Imagery-Stance

Rejected imagery as unscientific (unobservable). This suppressed imagery research until cognitive revolution.

Types of Mental Imagery?

Visual (shapes), spatial (locations), motor (movements).

Imageless Thought Debate- Modern View

Some abstract reasoning bypasses imagery.

Imagery Neurons

Neurons fire similarly during perception and imagery.

Primary Visual Cortex & Occipital Lobe

Active during both vision and imagery.

TMS to occipital lobe disrupts imagery, which challenges purely propositional views.

Mental Chronometry

Measuring the time course of mental processes. Reaction times reveal image manipulation (e.g., mental rotation).

Imagery vs. Perception Debate

Shared Mechanisms: Both activate visual cortex.

Differences: Imagery lacks sensory input.

Spatial Scanning

Scanning mental images (e.g., "is the rabbit's ear long?"). Takes longer to "travel" across larger distances.

Propositional Representation

Imagery is coded abstractly (like language), not spatially.

Evidence: is ambiguous images reinterpreted without visual detail.

Imagery in the Brain- Regions

Occipital lobe (visual), parietal lobe (spatial), prefrontal cortex (manipulation).

Imagery in the Brain- Disorders

Damage to these areas impairs imagery.

What is language?

A system of communication using sounds or symbols to express feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences.

What does it mean that language is a hierarchical system?

Smaller components (e.g., sounds, words) can be combined into larger units (e.g., sentences).

How is language governed?

By rules that dictate how components (words, sounds) can be arranged.

What evidence suggests language is innate?

Deaf children invent their own sign language, and all humans develop language following complex rules.

How is language universal across cultures?

All languages have nouns, verbs, negatives, questions, and past/present tense, despite different words and rules.

What was B.F. Skinner's theory of language learning?

Language is learned through reinforcement (e.g., rewards for correct speech).

What was Noam Chomsky's theory of language?

Human language is biologically coded (innate), with an underlying universal structure.

What is psycholinguistics?

The study of psychological processes involved in acquiring and processing language.

What are the four key areas of psycholinguistics?

Comprehension, speech production, representation, and acquisition.

What is a lexicon?

All the words a person understands.

What is semantics?

The meaning of language (words and sentences).

What is lexical semantics?

The meaning of individual words (including multiple meanings).

What is the word frequency effect?

Faster recognition of high-frequency words (e.g., "the") compared to low-frequency words.

What is speech segmentation?

Perceiving individual words in spoken language despite no pauses between them.

What is lexical ambiguity?

When a word has multiple meanings (e.g., "bank" as in riverbank or financial bank).

What is lexical priming?

When exposure to a word temporarily activates its meanings (e.g., "bug" primes both "insect" and "spy device").

What is meaning dominance?

Some word meanings are used more frequently than others (e.g., "bat" as animal vs. sports equipment). Dominant meanings accessed faster.

What is biased dominance?

When a word has multiple meanings with unequal frequency (e.g., "mouse" more commonly refers to the animal).

What is balanced dominance?

When a word has multiple meanings with roughly equal frequency (e.g., "bank" for river and money).

What is syntax?

Rules for combining words into sentences.