Western Civilizations Final Exam Review

Charlemagne

Crowned emperor of Rome by Pope Leo III in 800 AD (revives the authority of the Roman Empire (significance: Charlemagne was given power by a Catholic figure and therefore under power, demonstrates how powerful Christianity has become) founds Holy Roman Empire

Constantine

An elite Roman (290-300 AD) official during severe Christian persecution, organizes a revolt against the emperor, prays and sees a sign from God in battle, Rome becomes Christian under his rule, builds Constantinople

Early Church Fathers

Established orthodoxy and doctrine and canonized the NT at the First Canonization Council (Council of Nicaea in 325 AD)

Augustine

Wrote City of God in Rome in 410 AD during the sack of Rome by the Visigoths and Ostrogoths

Barbarians

Active during the 400s AD, sack Rome in 410 AD Muslims conquered Christian lands in 1095 (burned churches and killed pilgrims)

Charles Martel

Leader of the Frankish forces against Arab invaders at the battle of Poitiers

Cortez

Leader of Spanish forces during the conflict of Tenochtitlan (1520) against the Aztecs as they tried to escape the city with their plunder. Although his numbers were drastically reduced in the escape, Cortes rallied his remaining forces and was allied with Gaul and African forces, eventually returning to attack and defeat the Aztecs at Tenochtitlan

Montezuma

Leader of the Aztecs at Tenochtitlan, killed June 29,1520 by Castilians led by Hernan Cortes

Marco Polo

Venetian merchant & explorer who traveled along the Silk Road from 1271-1295

Mongols

The largest geographic empire in history up to this point under Genghis Khan (1294), didn’t establish a presence where they conquered, but killed most of the people and sent a few survivors to spread the word

Osman the First

Islamic war lord in Anatolia (makes it Muslim), expands the territory up to Constantinople, 1299-1323, burned churches/melted bells and made them into mosques

Dante

1265-132, “founding father of the Renaissance” that wrote the Divine Comedy (Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradiso)

Important Renaissance figures

Dante, Petrarch (humanism), Boccaccio, Michelangelo

Bartolomeo de Giano

wrote a letter during the Crusades about the cruelty of the Turks

John Wycliffe (1320-1284)

Pre-Reformation critic of the Catholic Church, English priest, illegally translated the Bible to English, taught sermons and not liturgies, followers called Lollards

Jan Hus

Pre-Reformation critic of the Catholic Church, translated Bible to Czech from Prague, burned at the stake in 1415

Petrarch & Lorenzo Valla

Pre-Reformation critic of the Catholic Church, humanist, contributed to “Ad Fontes,” advocated for looking back at Latin sources and not blindly trusting the pope

Luther

nailed the 95 theses (1517), calls into question confession/sacraments/purgatory (1519), writes books challenging papal authority (1520), breaks from Catholic church at Diet of Worms (1520), translates NT to German (1522)

Ulrich Zwingli

kicked out of Switzerland, went to Zurich, justification by faith alone, “warrior theologian”, disagreed w/ Luther on communion

John Calvin

French, kicked out of France and went to Geneva, quiet/scholarly man, sets up institutions to educate pastors, attempts to institute Protestant principles into city(1555), writes Institutes of the Christian Religion on fundamental theology, predestination, TULIP

Puritans

Richard Sibbes (terror & the idea of salvation through Christ), John Owen (pious & political puritan) nonconformism against The Church of England

Absolutists Monarchs

Louis the XIV (1643-1715) : centralizes administration (personal, dynastic, national interests centered around the king, elimination of local/provincial/judicial power, church admin under the king Charles I : royalist king, decapitated by parliamentarians victorious in the civil war (England)

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

published On the Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies (1543), introduced heliocentrism, scientist

J. Kepler (1571-1630)

astronomer and mathematician, explained lunar and solar eclipses, scientist

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

uses telescope to expand on and confirm heliocentrism, jailed/persecuted by Church (argued scientific materialism > scripture), scientist

Renee Decartes (1596-1650)

rule of 42 degrees (rainbows), scientist

Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

improved refraction telescope to the reflection telescope for a sharper image, scientist

Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

anatomist, published On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543), scientist

Robert Boyle (1627-1691)

gasses & chemistry, scientist

Explorers

Vasco de Gama: hired Portuguese pilot Columbus (1451-1506): sails to Bahamas and Cuba (1492).

Amerigo Vespucci (1502): lands in Brazil & renames continent to America

Magellan (1519-1522): Portuguese, proved all oceans connected, circumnavigated the world

Stuarts

Monarchs that ruled over England and Scotland Started with Charles I (1625), deposed & killed as a traitor to England, English Commonwealth briefly in power (Oliver Cromwell), Charles II returns to the throne in 1660 (Stuart Restoration) from France (dies in 1685), replaced by brother James II (weak king), married a catholic princess, eventually overthrown by popular support and daughter Mary who married William of Orange (Holland) and had a claim to the throne (Mary was a Stuart)

Oliver Cromwell

Led the English Commonwealth (Republic), puritan, died in 1658, declared himself dictator from 1649-1660

Enlightenment figures

Isaac Newton : published Principia in 1687

John Locke: wrote Treatise on Government

Diderot & d’Alembert: wrote 17 volumes of the Encyclopedia

Holy Roman Empire

Western & central Europe, founded by Charlemagne in 800 AD when he is crowned king by Pope Leo III (demonstrates the church’s power over state)

Umayyad Caliphate

second Islamic empire established after death of Muhammod

Florence

in Italy near the Mediterranean, allowing it to connect to many other cities

Portugal (Age of Exploration)

Explores from 1400-1700, invents a movable sail (allows for exploration), the Portuguese open Europe to the rest of the world (the east and west were severed due to expansion of the Ottoman empire)

Islamic Spain

Conquered by Umayyad Caliphate, later taken back in the Reconquista

Ottoman Empire

Capital: Constantinople (conquered in 1453), major spread of Islamic religion across Europe

Constantinople

The capital of eastern Christianity, conquered in 1453 and becomes the capital of the Ottoman Empire (modern day Istanbul)

Anatolia

Crossroads between Europe and Asia, Osman the First (Islamic war lord in Anatolia) → trade

New World Exploration

Columbus sails to Bahamas & Cuba in 1492

Amerigo Vespucci lands in Brazil (1502)

Holland, France, England are major sea powers poised for expansion

British New World Exploration

North America

French New World Exploration

Canada/Quebec, Louisiana

Spanish New World Exploration

Mexico, South America, Cuba & find silver and gold

Portuguese Exploration

Canary Islands (1339), Cape of Bojador (1434), Senegal (1445), Azores (1444)

Wittenberg

Germany, where Luther nailed the 95 theses (possible because of the printing press)

North and South America in the Age of Exploration

North: colonized by the British (American colonies) & French (Canada) & Spanish (Mexico) : found gold and silver for trading in China (Cortes in Mexico) South: Cortes in Peru (found silver) and Columbia (found gold)

India Age of Exploration

Found in 1498 by Portuguese pilot Vasco da Gama and Europe is connected to India by sea, causing the Portuguese to have a monopoly on the trade from India

Mongolia

Country founded in early 1200s by Genghis Khan, Mongol empire expanded rapidly (no settling or colonization, led by good horsemen), used fear/terror tactics to get what they wanted, Mongols pursued fleeing Slavs through the forest (couldn’t pursue on horseback), Mongols ruled for 200 years and solidify the split between the east & west church, as well as set Russia on a different trajectory

Venice

major trading city (on the Aegean) where Marco Polo was from

Russian expansion

Ivan III (grand prince of Moscow) marries Sophia (Byzantine princess), making Russia the heir of the Byzantine empire, expanding Moscow to the Euro mountains (1470s)

The doctrine of the Trinity

Determined during the Constantinople Council in 381 AD

Islam

Muhammad – orphaned when parents die, grows up in Mecca, receives visions from an angel in a cave and writes them down in the Koran, gathers followers and goes to Medina (later conquers the eastern and southern Roman empire)

Humanism

Study focused on man (as in humans) not God Michelangelo & the Sistine Chapel (1508-1512) demonstrates an interest in the study of humans rather than God (a student of man, not God) Renaissance humanism founded by Petrarch : revival of Greco-Roman authority against the weakening church (“Ad Fontes”) which undermines papal authority

Protestantism

Separation from the catholic church during the Protestant Reformation Main ideas/principles: salvation by grace through faith alone, authority of Scripture, rejection of Pope’s authority

Justification by faith

Protestant idea first introduced by Martin Luther

Solas

Sola scriptura – scripture is alone authoritative (not the Pope)

Sola fide – faith alone (brings salvation)

Sola gratia - grace alone

Sola Christus - Christ alone (God grants saving grace through Christ)

Soli Deo Gloria - to the glory of God alone

Indulgences

pay money to the church during your life in order to reduce time in purgatory increasing the church’s income (“purgatory industry”), idea of transactional grace, Johann Tetzel (“every coin… a soul from purgatory springs”)

Heliocentrism

idea that sun is central in the solar system (Copernicus) and expanded on by Galileo with a telescope

Scientific discoveries

cosmography, optics, anatomy, chemistry → these discoveries grew out of a Christian faith, specifically ideas about creation

Absolutism

1600-1800 a specific type of monarchy where power is concentrated and decision making is centralized (no checks and balances on the king)

Puritanism

Focused on law & gospel, desired “true religion”, broke away from other traditions, congregationalist (voting congregation)

Enlightenment ideas

don’t stand on tradition, question and examine everything, ask WHY, even if it hurts someone’s feelings

Constitutional Monarchy

Ideas of the Magna Carta (political power of the king is somewhat limited) & British Bill of Rights (similar ideas as the US constitution: exercising authority well, fair taxation, right to bear arms, fair bail and trials, etc.)

Early Middle Ages (

325 - 1054 AD)

325 - Constantine calls for the Council of Nicea 1054 - schism between Western church (Roman Catholicism) and Eastern church (Eastern Orthodoxy) Seven ecumenical (universal) councils defined orthodoxy and heterodoxy

High Middle Ages

(1000 - 1300 AD)

Questions over religion and politics. Does the pope crown the king or the king crown the pope? Charlemagne’s Holy Roman Empire established after he was crowned by the pope Technologies (scythes, horse shoes, water mills, horse shoes, horse shoes) allowed for more efficient food production, allowed Europeans to establish culture, universities Crusades lasted 1095 - 1289. Precipitated by Islamic conquest

Late Middle Ages (

1300 - 1500 AD)

Mongolian Empire had conquered all the way to Eastern Europe. Had subjects pay tribute but didn’t try to convert them Osman the First (r. 1299-1323) est. Ottoman Empire. Constantinople fell to Ottomans in 1453 Black Death (1346 - 1353) killed about ½ of Europe’s population Avignon papacy (1309 - 1377) - “Babylonian captivity of the church”

Renaissance

(1300 - 1600)

Revival of Greece and Rome Terrible circumstances lead to the creation of beautiful things Founding fathers of Renaissance (da Vinci, Galileo, Machiavelli) from Florence. Culture predicated on Florence’s wealth Humanism - human beings are worthy of being studied

Reformation

(1517 - 1648?) Questioning of authority of Catholic church Church taught the hierarchy of the church (with the pope being Jesus’ vicar). Oct. 31, 1517 - Luther nailed 95 Theses to the Wittenberg church door. Spoke out against indulgences 1519 - Luther had revelation reading Romans 1:17. Justification by faith alone 1648 - Peace of Westphalia ended Thirty Years’ War

Counter-Reformation

(1545 - 1563 AD)

Catholic church’s response to Reformation Catholic Council of Trent (1545 - 1563) rejected ‘sola fide’ and reaffirmed teachings of Catholic church

Age of Absolutism (1600 - 1800)

States now the main political organization as opposed to the church 30 Years’ War (1618-48) started bc Reformed Prince Frederick and Catholic Prince Ferdinand fought over Bohemia. France, Holland, Sweden fought against the Holy Roman Empire. Est. state sovereignty, made absolute monarchs possible.

Age of Exploration (1400 - 1700)

Ottomans disrupted land trade routes after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Spain, Portugal sought new trade routes to Asia. New World discovered. Gaining gold and silver became a new motivating factor for exploration, as well as gaining slaves.

Scientific Revolution

(1500 - 1700)

Happened in Europe because it was Christian, not despite the fact that it was. Scientists sought to understand and explain order in the world. Cosmography, optics, anatomy, chemistry, physics developed by leaps and bounds.

Enlightenment

(1680 - 1780’s)

Enlightenment is a ‘transnational philosophical movement that increased authority of human reason for determining truth: unassisted reason, not faith or tradition, is the principle guide to human conduct’. Claimed human reason could solve all our problems. People began to see science and religion as opposites. Newton published Principia (1687), which gave people confidence in logic and rationality. Sapere aude - dare to know New ideas of public vs private sphere began to emerge. Business primarily the ‘public’ square. Beginning of the end of Enlightenment came with the French Revolution. Revolution based on Enlightenment ideals, but ended in terror which made Enlightenment seem scary.

Holy Roman Empire

Charlemagne, first HRE emperor, crowned by the pope in 800 AD. Lasted until 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.

Papacy

Peter is said to be the first pope. Papal authority is the conduit through which God’s grace flows. Means of grace made of the 7 sacraments + confession.

Slavery

Slave trade routes est. during the Age of Exploration. Transatlantic slave trade made possible bc of improved sailing methods

Universities

Est. during High Middle Ages bc of increased technology (HORSE SHOE). Taught theology, law, medicine. Movement from subsistence existence to a higher level of thinking.

Battle of Poitiers (732 AD)

Martel and Franks kept Islamic forces from marching further north into Europe. Footsoldiers.

Reconquista (722 - 1492 AD)

Reclamation of Spain by Christian kings from Islamic rule

Battle of Acre

Muslims expel Christians from the Holy Land in 1291

Fall of Constantinople (1453 AD)

Constantinople was the capital of the Eastern Orthodox church. Fell to the Ottoman Empire, became Islamic and renamed Istanbul.

Thirty Years War (1618-1648 AD)

Started as a civil war between a Catholic prince and Protestant prince over Bohemia. Evolved war between HRE and France, Holland, Sweden. ‘realpolitik’ - practical considerations foundation of politics, not religion.

English Civil War (1642 - 1650 AD)

Over question of how powerful a king should be. Royalists vs. Parliamentarians. Charles I was decapitated, but Charles II restored the Stuart dynasty.

Glorious Revolution (1688 AD)

William and Mary overthrew James II, est. a constitutional monarchy in England.

English Bill of Rights (1689)

Written after the Glorious Revolution. Law that limited power of monarchy, confirmed civil rights of the people.

Magna Carta (excerpts) (1215)

Written by King John of England. How the king was to relate to his kingdom. Early ideas of no taxation w/o representation, private property, right to due process. Precursor for Bill of Rights.