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Chemistry
Study of matter and its changes.
Matter
Anything with mass and volume.
Scientific Method
Observation → Hypothesis → Experiment → Theory (explains why) → Law (describes what).
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Numerical vs. descriptive data.
SI Base Units
Length (m), Mass (kg), Time (s), Temp (K), Amount (mol), Current (A), Luminous Intensity (cd).
SI Prefixes
tera (10¹²), mega (10⁶), kilo (10³), deci (10⁻¹), centi (10⁻²), milli (10⁻³), micro (10⁻⁶), nano (10⁻⁹), pico (10⁻¹²).
Accuracy vs. Precision
Accuracy = closeness to true value; Precision = reproducibility.
Error Types
Random (affects precision); Systematic (affects accuracy).
Significant Figures
Rules for counting and using sig figs; exact numbers have infinite sig figs.
Dimensional Analysis
Converting units systematically.
Temperature Conversion
°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9; K = °C + 273.15.
Solid
fixed shape, volume; not compressible.
Liquid
fixed volume, takes shape; slightly compressible.
Gas
no fixed shape or volume; compressible.
Pure substances
elements or compounds.
Mixtures
homogeneous (uniform) or heterogeneous (non-uniform).
Physical vs. Chemical Changes
Physical = no new substance; Chemical = new substance formed.
Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier)
Matter is neither created nor destroyed.
Definite Proportions (Proust)
Compounds have constant composition.
Multiple Proportions (Dalton)
Elements combine in small whole-number ratios.
Dalton's Atomic Theory
Atoms are indivisible; all atoms of an element are identical; atoms combine in fixed ratios.
Proton
+1 charge, mass ≈ 1 amu, in nucleus.
Neutron
0 charge, mass ≈ 1 amu, in nucleus.
Electron
−1 charge, negligible mass, outside nucleus.
Atomic Number (Z)
Number of protons; identifies element.
Mass Number (A)
Protons + neutrons.
Isotopes
Same Z, different A (different neutrons).
Periodic Table Groups
Metals, nonmetals, metalloids. Alkali metals (Group 1), Alkaline earth metals (2), Halogens (17), Noble gases (18).
First 36 elements
H, He, Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne, Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar, K, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Se, Br, Kr.
Type I Ionic
Fixed cation charge (no Roman numerals). Example: NaCl = sodium chloride.
Type II Ionic
Variable cation charge (Roman numerals). Example: FeCl₃ = iron(III) chloride.
Type III Covalent
Prefixes for number of atoms (mono-, di-, tri-, etc.). Example: CO₂ = carbon dioxide.
Monatomic Anions (-ide endings)
O²⁻ oxide, S²⁻ sulfide, N³⁻ nitride, F⁻ fluoride, Cl⁻ chloride, Br⁻ bromide, I⁻ iodide.
Polyatomic Ions
CO₃²⁻ carbonate, NO₃⁻ nitrate, SO₄²⁻ sulfate, PO₄³⁻ phosphate. NO₂⁻ nitrite, SO₃²⁻ sulfite, PO₃³⁻ phosphite. CN⁻ cyanide, OH⁻ hydroxide, NH₄⁺ ammonium, C₂H₃O₂⁻ acetate.
Other Important Ions
CrO₄²⁻ chromate, Cr₂O₇²⁻ dichromate, MnO₄⁻ permanganate. ClO₄⁻ perchlorate, ClO₃⁻ chlorate, ClO₂⁻ chlorite, ClO⁻ hypochlorite (and Br, I analogues).
Hydrogen Variants
HSO₄⁻ bisulfate, HCO₃⁻ bicarbonate, HPO₄²⁻ hydrogen phosphate, H₂PO₄⁻ dihydrogen phosphate.
H
Hydrogen
He
Helium
Li
Lithium
Be
Beryllium
B
Boron
C
Carbon
N
Nitrogen
O
Oxygen
F
Fluorine
Ne
Neon
Na
Sodium
Mg
Magnesium
Al
Aluminum
Si
Silicon
P
Phosphorus
S
Sulfur
Cl
Chlorine
Ar
Argon
K
Potassium
Ca
Calcium
Sc
Scandium
Ti
Titanium
V
Vanadium
Cr
Chromium
Mn
Manganese
Fe
Iron
Co
Cobalt
Ni
Nickel
Cu
Copper
Zn
Zinc
Ga
Gallium
Ge
Germanium
As
Arsenic
Se
Selenium
Br
Bromine
Kr
Krypton
Li⁺
Lithium ion
Na⁺
Sodium ion
K⁺
Potassium ion
Rb⁺
Rubidium ion
Cs⁺
Cesium ion
Fr⁺
Francium ion
Be²⁺
Beryllium ion
Mg²⁺
Magnesium ion
Ca²⁺
Calcium ion
Sr²⁺
Strontium ion
Ba²⁺
Barium ion
Ra²⁺
Radium ion
Al³⁺
Aluminum ion
Zn²⁺
Zinc ion
Ag⁺
Silver ion
Cu⁺
Copper(I) ion
Cu²⁺
Copper(II) ion
Fe²⁺
Iron(II) ion (ferrous)
Fe³⁺
Iron(III) ion (ferric)
Pb²⁺
Lead(II) ion
Pb⁴⁺
Lead(IV) ion
Sn²⁺
Tin(II) ion
Sn⁴⁺
Tin(IV) ion
H⁻
Hydride
F⁻
Fluoride
Cl⁻
Chloride
Br⁻
Bromide
I⁻
Iodide