exam 1 research methods

experimental reality

the things we know from direct experience

agreement reality

the things we consider real because we have been told they are real, and everyone agrees (ex. sun sets in the west)

empirical

knowledge produced based on experience or observation

tradition

things that “everybody knows” (ex. driving on the left side of the road in US is dangerous) this and authority provide us with a starting point for our own inquiry

authority

trusting the judgement of someone with special expertise (ex. you are more likely to believe a judge regarding your driver’s license suspension than your parents) this and tradition provide us with a starting point for our own inquiry

overgeneralization

a way to overcome this is by replicating the study to see if you get the same result

selective observation

specify in advance the number and types of observations

illogical reasoning

use systems of logic, consciously and explicity

exploration

a purpose of research: examine the issue or policy about which little is known, might also collect data on some measure to serve as a baseline for later comparisons, appropriate when some type of policy change is being considered, and may be simple or complex and can use a variety of methods

description

a purpose of research: observe and describe the scope of a problem or policy response, make a more accurate and formal observation, often concerned with counting or documenting observations (exploratory studies focus more on developing a preliminary understanding - US Census), and following exploration, we want to know the problem’s frequency/prevalence/degree/scope

observation

the stage of the research process where you collect empirical data

application

a purpose of research: applied research is often used to evaluate the effects of specific criminal justice programs, and there are two major types of applied research : evaluation research - comparing programs goals to result / policy analysis - prospective - anticipate future consequences of alternative actions

inaccurate observation

a way to combat this is by using measuring devices

explanation

a purpose of research: explaining things - answers “why”, why have we seen a certain change in scope, and why does a certain problem exist (ex. why do some people write computer viruses? why do some people assault their spouses)

why do we need to study research methods

we do this because criminal justice professionals are both consumers and producers of research, it is important for them to also be informed consumers of research, and there is a need to understand findings and how to apply those findings to his or her department

theory

discovering what is, not what should be (ex. cannot settle debates on value), they describe the relationships that might be logically expected among variables, systematic explanation for the observed facts and laws that relate to a particular aspect of life; propositions explaining why events occur in the manner that they do

operationalization

a look at the world systematically, develops theoretical expectations, and measure

deductive logic

moves from the general to the specific, from a logically or theoretically expected pattern to observations that test the presence of the pattern, “why something happens” —> “whether it actually does”

inductive logic

moves from the specific to the general, from a set of observations to the discovery of a pattern among them

hypothesis

specific expectations about empirical reality, derived from propositions

paradigm

fundamental model or scheme that organizes our view of something, a lens through which we view a certain piece of reality in our world

intersubjective agreement

a fundamental norm of science, multiple people agree on something, and that agreement serves as a basis for truth or knowledge

aggregates

more often the subject of social science research

attributes

characteristics or qualities that describe some object, such as a person (ex. married)

variable

logical groupings of attributes (ex. occupations)

dependent variable

the “effect”, “depends” (ex. type of defense attorney —> prison or probation)

independent variable

the “cause”, influencer

quantitative

numerical, carries a focusing of attention and specification of meaning

qualitative

nonnumerical, greater richness of meaning

ethics

a matter of agreement among professionals

psychological / physical harm

psychological harm via remembrance of unpleasant / traumatic experience, dilemma balancing potential benefits against the possibility of harm, possible harm may be justified by potential benefit of study

anonymity

when a researcher cannot identify a given piece of information with a given person

voluntary participation

cj research often intrudes into people’s lives, this asks them to reveal what is generally unknown, participation must be voluntary but this threatens generalizability

confidentiality

a researcher can link information with a subject, but promises not to do so publicly

deceiving subjects

generally considered unethical, sometimes useful and even necessary to identify yourself as a researcher, “don’t go undercover” (ex. widom 1990 - child abuse and illegal drug use and inciardi 1993 - studying crack houses)

mandatory reporting

ex. the federal child abuse prevention and treatment act of 1974

codes of professional ethics

the american psychological association (2002) code of ethics is quite detailed, reflecting the different professional roles of psychologists in research, clinical treatment, and educational contexts (ex. academy of cj sciences ethical standards, american society of criminology code of ethics, US department of health and human services, and american bar association code of professional responsibility)

informed consent

requires that subjects both have the capacity to understand and do understand the research, risks, side effects, benefits to subjects, and procedures used (ex. new jersey state troopers and racial profiling)

institutional review boards

gov agencies and non-gov organizations must establish these

members make judgement about overall risks and their acceptability, members decide whether research procedures include safeguards to protect safety, confidentiality, and general welfare of subjects

what was the standford prison experiment

studied dispositional hypothesis - prisons are brutal and dehumanizing because of people in them, situational hypothesis - prison environment creates brutal and dehumanizing conditions independent of the people in them: haney, banks, and zimbardo - sought to test situational hypothesis by simulating a prison in 1971

• “prison” was constructed in basement of psychological building

• 24 healthy/psychologically normal subjects selected, offered $15 a day for their participation

• asked to sign a contract that they would be confined, put under constant surveillance, and have their civil rights suspended - but would not be subject to physical abuse

• terminated after 6 days (planned for 2 weeks)

• subjects displayed “ unexpected intense reactions”

• five had to be released b/c they showed signs of acute depression and anxiety

• guards became aggressive, prisoners became passive

what is humphrey’s “tearoom trade” study

Laud Humphrey 1975 - studied homosexual acts between strangers who meet in public restrooms in parks “tearooms", served as “watchqueen”

noted plate numbers of participants, tracked down names and addresses through police, conducted a survey to obtain personal info at their homes