Observations, self-report & correlations

What is the definition of a naturalistic observation?

Watching & recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur

What are the strengths & limitations of a naturalistic observation?

Strength:

• high external validity → findings can be generalised to everyday life

Limitations:

• lack of control over the research situation makes replication of the investigation difficult

• there may be uncontrolled extraneous variables → more difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour

What is the definition of a controlled observation?

Watching & recording behaviour within a structured environment (variables are controlled)

What are the strengths & limitations of controlled observations?

Strengths:

• high control over the research situation makes replication of the investigation easier

• high control of extraneous variables → more easier to judge patterns of behaviour

Limitations:

• low external validity → findings are less generalisable to everyday life, due to the artificial environment

What is the definition of a covert observation?

Participants’ behaviour is watched & recorded without their knowledge or consent

What are the strengths & limitations of a covert observation?

Strengths:

• avoids demand characteristics & social desirability bias

• increases internal validity → behaviour observed is natural

Limitations:

• ethical issues → participants cannot give informed consent & may not want to have their behaviours noted down

What is the definition of an overt observation?

Participants’ behaviour is watched & recorded with their knowledge & consent

What is a strength & limitation of an overt observation?

Strength:

• more ethical as participants provide their informed consent

Limitation:

• possibility of demand characteristics & social desirability bias → participants know they’re being watched

What is the definition of participant observation?

The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching & recording

What are the strengths & limitations of participant observation?

Strengths:

• researcher can experience the situation as the participants do → increases insight into the lives of the people being studied (increases validity of findings)

• researcher may be able to build a rapport with the participants → encourages them to behave more naturally

Limitation:

• researcher may come to identify too strongly with the participants & lose objectivity

What is the definition of a non-participant observation?

The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching & recording

What is a strength & limitation of a non-participant observation?

Strength:

• Allows the researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from their participants → less chance they are going to lose objectivity

Limitation:

• Researcher may lose the valuable insight to be gained in a participant observation, as they are too far removed from the people & behaviour they are studying

What is the difference between structured & unstructured observations?

• Structured observations: a pre-determined list of target behaviours is used to record participants’ behaviours

• Unstructured observations: the researcher writes down everything they see

What is a strength & limitation of a structured observation?

Strength:

• Data produced is likely to be numerical → analysing & comparing the behaviour observed between participants is more straightforward

Limitation:

• Less richness & depth of detail in the data collected

What are the strengths & limitations of an unstructured observation?

Strength:

• more richness & depth of detail in the data collected

Limitations:

• produces qualitative data, which is more difficult & time-consuming to record & analyse

• possibility of observer bias → researcher may only record behaviour that ‘catches their eye’

What is the definition of behavioural categories?

A target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable & measurable

What is the definition of event sampling?

A target behaviour or event is first established, then the researcher records this event every time it occurs

What is a strength & limitation of event sampling?

Strength:

• useful when the target behaviour or event happens quite infrequently & could be missed if time sampling was used

Limitation:

• if the specified event is too complex, the observer may overlook important details

What is the definition of time sampling?

A target individual or group is first established, then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame

What is a strength & limitation of time sampling?

Strength:

• effective in reducing the number of observations that have to be made

Limitation:

• instances when behaviour is sampled might be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole

What is inter-observer reliability & how is it achieved?

Single observers may miss details or show researcher bias, so observations should use at least two observers:

• observers familiarise themselves with behavioural categories, observe the same behaviour simultaneously, compare & discuss recordings, then calculate inter-observer reliability by correlating their observations

What is the definition of a self-report technique?

Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours &/or experiences related to a given topic

What is the definition of a questionnaire?

A set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts &/or experiences

What are the strengths & limitations of questionnaires?

Strengths:

• time & cost effective → able to gather large amounts of data as they can be distributed to large numbers of people

• can be completed without the researcher being present → reduces effort involved

• produces data that is usually straightforward to analyse

Limitations:

• responses may not always to truthful (e.g. social desirability bias)

• possibility of acquiescence bias → tendency to agree with questions regardless of the content of the question

What is the difference between open & closed questions?

• Open questions: phrased in a way that allows the participant to answer in any way they choose

• Closed questions: phrased in a way that limits the participants’ responses to only a few fixed options

What is a strength & limitation of open questions?

Strength:

• produces qualitative data → rich in detail & depth

Limitation:

• more time-consuming & difficult to analyse

What is a strength & limitation of closed questions?

Strength:

• produces quantitative data → easy & quick to analyse, making comparisons between answers easy

Limitation:

• quantitative data lacks detail & depth

What is the definition of an interview?

A ‘live’ encounter where the interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts &/or experiences

What are the different types of interviews?

• Structured interviews: made up of a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order

• Unstructured interviews: no set questions & interaction is free-flowing → interviewee is encouraged to expand & elaborate their answers as prompted by the interviewer

• Semi-structured interviews: a pre-determined set of questions but interviewers are free to ask follow-up questions when they feel it is appropriate

What are the strengths & limitations of structured interviews?

Strengths:

• straightforward to replicate due to their standardised format

• standardised format reduces differences between interviewers

Limitation:

• not possible for interviewers to deviate from the topic or for interviewees to elaborate their points

What is a strength & limitation of an unstructured interview?

Strength:

• more flexibility → interviewer can follow up points as they arise & is much more likely to gain insight into the worldview of the interviewee

Limitation:

• analysis of data is not straightforward → researcher may have to sift through much irrelevant information & drawing conclusions may be difficult

How should interviews & questionnaires be conducted & designed?

• Avoid jargon & emotive language

• Avoid leading questions & double-barrelled/negative questions

• Pilot the questions (so if need be, they can be altered)

• Include filler/neutral questions → reduces demand characteristics & makes participants feel relaxed & comfortable, establishing a rapport

• Conduct interview in a quiet room, away from other people → increases likelihood interviewee will open up

• Remind participants their answers will remain anonymous

What are Likert scales, rating scales & fixed choice option items?

• Likert scales: respondent indicates their agreement (or otherwise) with a statement using a scale of usually five points → the scale ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree

• Rating scales: respondents identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about a particular topic

• Fixed choice option item: includes a list of possible options & respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them

What is the definition of a correlation?

A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two co-variables (plotted on a scattergraph)

What is the definition of a positive, negative & zero correlation?

• Positive correlation: as one co-variable increases, so does the other

• Negative correlation: as one co-variable increases, the other decreases

• Zero correlation: there is no relationship between the co-variables

What correlation coefficient do psychologists typically consider indicative of a strong relationship?

+0.8

What are the strengths & limitations of correlations?

Strengths:

• provide a precise & quantifiable measure of how two variables are related → may suggest ideas for possible future research

• relatively quick & economical to carry out → no need for a controlled environment or manipulation of variables

• secondary data can be used, meaning correlations are less time-consuming

Limitation:

• does not show cause & effect → third, intervening variable could have caused relationship observed