Topic 1: Theories of religion

What are the three definitions of religion?

• The Substantive definition (Max Weber)

• The Functionalist definition (Durkheim)

• Constructionist definition

What is the Substantive definition of religion?

A substantive definition is concerned about the content of religion and the influence it has on the individual. Max Weber (1905) defines religion as belief in a superior or supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically

Evaluate the substantive definition of religion

-Exclusive (clear line between religion/non-religion) leaving no room for beliefs that perform similar function but don`t have a God

-Western bias; only accepts western concepts around God excluding religions such as Buddhism

Whats the Functional definition of religion?

Durkheim: Religion is defined in terms of the function it performs to society, this being social intergration

Yinger: identifies functions that religion performs for individuals, such as answering ‘ultimate questions’ about the meaning of life and what happens when we die

Therefore its function both for wider society and the individual.

Evaluate the Functional definition of religion

+Inclusive definition fits a wide variety of beliefs

+Not bais against non-western religions

-Institutions/practices that help integration aren`t always religious, football chants

Whats the [Social] Constructionist definition of religion?

An interpretivist view that it is not possible to create a single definition, as religion is perceived differently across individuals and groups. For example Aldridge identifies how Scientology is seen as a religion by its followers, a cult by its opponents, and neither by most governments

Evaluate the Constructionist definition of religion?

+Allows us to get closer to the meaning people themselves give to religion, rather than imposing one on them

-Makes it impossible to get closer to generalise about the nature of religion

What is the role of religion according to functionalists?

• It maintains a Value consensus (shared set of norms and values), without which individuals would pursue their own selfish desire

• Socially integrates people preventing alienation

What is the role of religion according to Functionalists?

• Durkheim - social intergration: the core of religion is not belief in gods, but the distinction between the sacred (set apart, awe-inspiring, surrounded by taboos) and the profane (ordinary, everyday). The rituals and practices that take place in relation to the sacred and collective, and thus promote social integration. At the same time worship of totems (or other religious symbols) inspires awe precisely because they represent the power of society through which individuals depend. Eg the Arunta Aboriginals worshipped the totem symbols of their clan group, and by doing so, were worshipping the clan itself). Therefore both the collectivist nature, and societal worship promotes social integration and social solidarity

• Durkheim - cognitive function: Religion allows us to reason and conceptualise. This is because in order to think and even begin to order our thoughts, we need concepts such as time, space et. In addition we need a common framework of said concepts in order to communicate effectively with others. Thus, religion is the origin of human thought, both on an individual and collective level

• Malinowski - Phycological function: Helps people cope with emotion stress that could undermine social solidarity:

  • When the outcome is important but uncertain. The Triobrand islanders, lagoon fishing safe so no ritual required, whereas ocean fishing not safe so “canoe magic” ritual performed.

  • At times of life crisis - eg birth/death/puberty. These can be a cause of major disruption and religion serves to minimise this through use of ritual (eg funeral reinforces solidarity amongst bereaved)

• Parsons - legitimates societies central values: It does this by sacralising them (making them sacred). In the US, Protestantism has sacralised the core American values of individualism, meritocracy and self-discipline, and thus promoted a value consensus.

• Bellah - functional alternative: The state itself can take on a religious identity (civil religion) to unify society. America has become increasingly religiously diverse, meaning that no single religion can unify society. Thus the state seeks to, as seen with rituals such as pledging allegiance to the flag or symbols such as the Statue of Liberty (a functional alternative)

What is Bellahs theory that their can be functional alternatives to religion?

The state itself can take on a religious identity (civil religion) to unify society. America has become increasingly religiously diverse, meaning that no single religion can unify society. Thus the state seeks to, as seen with rituals such as pledging allegiance to the flag or symbols such as the Statue of Liberty (a functional alternative)

Which Functionalist theorizes that there can be functional alternatives to religion?

Bellah

What is Parsons theory on the role of religion as an institution to legitimate societies central values?

It does this by sacralising them (making them sacred). In the US, Protestantism has sacralised the core American values of individualism, meritocracy and self-discipline, and thus promoted a value consensus.

Which functionalist theorizes that religion legitimates societies central values?

Parsons

What are Durkheim’s theory’s on the role of religion as a institution for maintaining social cohesion?

The core of religion is not belief in gods, but the distinction between the sacred (set apart, awe-inspiring, surrounded by taboos) and the profane (ordinary, everyday). The rituals and practices that take place in relation to the sacred and collective, and thus promote social integration. At the same time worship of totems (or other religious symbols) inspires awe precisely because they represent the power of society through which individuals depend. Eg the Arunta Aboriginals worshipped the totem symbols of their clan group, and by doing so, were worshipping the clan itself). Therefore both the collectivist nature, and societal worship promotes social integration and social solidarity

Which functionalist identifies the role of religion i regard to its cognitive function and social cohesion?

Durkheim

What are Durkheim’s theory’s on the role of religion as a institution for developing cognitive function?

Religion allows us to reason and conceptualise. This is because in order to think and even begin to order our thoughts, we need concepts such as time, space et. In addition we need a common framework of said concepts in order to communicate effectively with others. Thus, religion is the origin of human thought, both on an individual and collective level

What are Malinowski`s theory`s on the role of religion for psychological functions?

Helps people cope with emotion stress that could undermine social solidarity:

• The outcome is important but uncertain. The Triobrand islanders, lagoon fishing safe so no ritual required, whereas ocean fishing not safe so “canoe magic” ritual performed.

• At times of life crisis - eg birth/death/puberty. These can be a cause of major disruption and religion serves to minimise this through use of ritual (eg funeral reinforces solidarity amongst bereaved).

Evaluate the Functionalist view of religion

• Worsely - methodologically: Durkheim small study of the Arunta cannot be applied to all Aboriginal groups, let alone all of world relgion

• Theoretically: Ignores the way it can cause social division - eg in Northern Ireland between Protestants and Catholics

What are Marx`s theory`s on the ideological role of religion?

• Opium of the people - religion acts to dull the pain of oppression through promises of a better life, therefore distracting people from their exploitation and pacifying their resistance to it

• False consciousness - religion misleads people into believing their poverty is justified or even virtuous (easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than a rich man to enter the Kingdom of Heaven). This creates a false consciousness - a distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from acting to change their situation.

Evaluate Marxist views on religion?

-Identifies how religion can hinder class consciousness, but not how it can equally be a tool of resistance (Muslim Brotherhood in the Arab Spring 2011)

-Abercrombie et al (2015) argued that in feudal that Christianity only had a limited impact on the Peasantry, it was not particularly effective as an ISA

What is the role of religion according to Feminists? (2)

• Maintains patriarchy (through its beliefs and its practices)

• There are religious forms of feminism

How are religious beliefs Patriarchal? (3)

• Ideologically - Jean Holm: Devaulation of women, eg menstruating women cant touch the Qur`an, central figures almost solely male

• Practically - Armstrong: Exclude women from power. Eg cant be Priests in Catholicism

• Legally - Religious laws may give women fewer rights than men, for example in access to divorce

Which feminist sociologist outlines how the beliefs of religion uphold the Patriarchy?

Jean Holm

Which feminist sociologist outlines how the practices of religion uphold the Patriarchy?

Karen Armstrong

In what way is religion not patriarchal? (2)

• Linda Woodhead sees the hijab as a tool of liberation, reacting against western Islamophobia

• Organisations such as the Quakers are committed to gender equality - which allowed male and female speakers from its inception