Social Psych Exam 1

Theory

a body of related propositions intended to describe some aspect of the world

Hypothesis

a prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances

Random Selection

Every person has an equal chance of being studied

Correlation

it is conducted to determine whether there is an association among two or more variables.

Independent Variable

this variable is manipulated;

Dependent Variable

the variable that is measured

Random Assignment

assigning participants in experimental research to different groups randomly

Spotlight effect

people overestimate how much others notice and judge their appearance, actions, or mistakes

Illusion of Transparency

overestimate how well others can read, perceive, or understand their internal thoughts, emotions, and mental states

Self-reference effect

They remember more when linked to themselves

Self esteem

overall positive or negative evaluation an individual has of him- or

herself

Locus of Control

Internal = “I control it.”
External = “Outside forces control it.”

Learned Helplessness

where a person or animal stops trying to escape a bad situation because they believe they have no control over it, even when change is possible

Self-serving Bias

See ourselves positively

Self-Serving attribution

We take credit for our achievements but blame external factors and others for our failures

False Consensus

we think everyone agrees with our opinion

False Uniqueness

we think we are the only ones who have our virtues

False Modesty

having a balanced, unboastful view of your own worth, achievements, and abilities without seeking excessive attention or praise

Self-Handicapping

the tendency to engage in self-defeating behavior in order to have an

excuse ready, should one perform poorly or fail

Self-Monitoring

the tendency to monitor one’s behavior to fit the current situation

Priming

something comes first and “activates” something that influences what comes next.

Belief Perseverance

cling to an initial belief or concept even after receiving clear, contradictory evidence

Heuristic

fast and simple mental shortcut

The Representativeness Heuristic

think more likely is true in which it fits in the category.

The availability Heuristic

immediate example shortcut that comes up to mind

Counterfactual thinking

human tendency to mentally create possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred

Illusory Correlations

find patterns that don’t exist

Illusions of Control

cognitive bias where people overestimate their ability to influence outcomes that are actually determined by chance or external forces

Focal emotions

emotions that are more commonly experienced and expressed in a given culture

Affective forecasting

the process of predicting how future events will make you feel emotionally

Sapir-Wharff Hypothesis

proposes that the specific language you speak shapes and influences how you think about and perceive the world

ABCs of attitude

Affect, Behavior, Cognitions

Cognitive Dissonance

the mental discomfort or tension you feel when your beliefs, values, and behaviors do not match

Impression Management

We act consistent even when we aren’t because we don’t want to look like inconsistent people

Insufficient Justification

When you have a small reason for doing something, you convince yourself that you actually like or believe in it

The Over-justification Effect

When you get an external reward for doing something you already enjoy, you may start enjoying it less

Impression Management vs. cognitive dissonance vs. self-perception vs. self-affirmation

manage how others see you, behavior and beliefs don’t match, what you believe/feel by looking at your own behavior, protect sense of worth

Self-enhancement vs. self-verification

feel good about yourself vs. feel understood/accurately seen

Contingencies of self-worth vs. sociometer hypothesis

self-esteem contingent on success and failure vs. is internal, high acceptance=go up, low acceptance=go down

Self-Perception

figuring out what you think or feel about yourself by looking at your own behavior.

Self-Affirmation

protecting your sense of self-worth by reminding yourself that you are valuable in other important areas.

Attribution Theory

how we explain WHY something happened or WHY someone behaved a certain way.

Social Functional Theory of Emotions

emotions help us communicate with and influence other people

Broaden and Build Hypothesis

positive emotions broaden your thinking and help you build lasting resources.

Higgins’ Self-Discrepancy Theory

people have different versions of themselves: actual, ideal, and ought self

Tesser’s Self Evaluation Maintenance Model

How other people’s success can affect how you feel about yourself, especially when they are close to you.

System Justification Theory

people sometimes defend or justify the existing social system, even when it may disadvantage them

Terror Management Theory

people deal with the fear of death by creating meaning and feeling that their life has value

How do we know when a theory is a good theory?

explain and predict behavior accurately.

If I find a correlation between two variables, what are all of the possible explanations for that correlation?

x causes y, y causes x, third variable causes both

What is the purpose of Random Selection and Random Assignment?

representative sample vs. create similar groups

How do people form a concept of themselves (Self-Concept)?

the beliefs and ideas you have about who you are.

What are some examples of how we are often inaccurate about our self-knowledge?

If I don’t get this job, I’ll be miserable for months!

How can people learn to be helpless?

learn to feel helpless when they repeatedly experience situations where their actions seem to not affect the outcome

How does behavioral confirmation work?

our expectations about another person cause us to behave toward them in a way that makes our expectations come true.

What was Wegner’s “I spy” study all about?

trying to suppress a thought can actually make that thought come to mind more often

What are some ways people are inaccurate about themselves, their future, and their past?

spotlight effect, overestimate future behavior, reconstruct past

Why do we tend to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs?

naturally look for information that supports what we already believe and often overlook information that contradicts it.

What is the difference between the fundamental attribution error and self-serving attributions?

focus other people vs. focus ourselves

Why did some researchers believe that attitudes did not predict behaviors?

people often say they believe one thing but behave differently

Under what circumstances will attitudes predict behaviors?

when the attitude is strong, specific, and relevant to the behavior.

What was the take-home point about attitudes and behaviors in Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment?

situations and social roles can strongly influence behavior

According to Cognitive Dissonance Theorists, what are three things you can do to decrease any cognitive dissonance that you’re experiencing?

change your behavior, attitude, add justification

If the Sapir-Wharff hypothesis were true, how would that affect our understanding of how emotions are experienced?

the language we speak influences how we think and experience the world—including our emotions

What are the four components of emotion and what are some arguments for and against them being necessary for the experience of emotion?

Physical arousal, cognitive appraisal, subjective experience, behavioral response

What are the six universally expressed emotions?

happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and surprise

What are the four major self-conscious emotions and under what experiences are they felt?

shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride. social standards, expectations, or other people

Under what circumstances would people to choose downward social comparisons and upward social comparisons?

comparing yourself to other people to evaluate yourself.

What are some cultural differences in the understanding of the self and what are some experiments that have demonstrated those differences?

 independent (individual) and interdependent (relationships) views of the self.