Anatomy final

What is Humoral stimuli

A change in blood levels of ions or nutrients that directly stimulate secretion of hormones (ex. Blood levels of calcium, if blood calcium concentration drops, this stimulates the parathyroid glands to secrete parathyroid hormone, target cells of parathyroid hormone are located in bone and kidneys which, when stimulated lead to increased blood calcium levels)

What is Neural Stimuli

Nerve fibers directly stimulate the release of hormones (ex. Stimulation of adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and norepinephrine, happens through direct stimulation from the sympathetic nervous system nerve endings in the medulla of the adrenal gland

What is Hormonal Stimuli

Hormones stimulates release of a hormone (ex. When hormones released by the hypothalamus stimulate their target cells in the anterior pituitary gland)

·      How do hormones recognize its target

Target cells – Tissues with receptors for a specific hormone

What is the second messenger system

Intracellular molecule generated by the binding of a chemical to a receptor protein, this mediates responses to the chemical messenger

What are G proteins

Relay signals from receptors on the cell surface to target molecules inside the cell, facilitating responses to hormones and neurotransmitters

What is the Hormone that targets the epiphyseal plate for growth

Growth Hormone (GH) – Hormone stimulating growth, generally produced anterior pituitary

Symptoms of hypothryoidism

Fatigue, cold sensitivity, constipation, dry skin, weight gain, puffy face, hoarse voice, course hair/skin, muscle weakness/aches, thinning hair, bradycardia, memory problems

Role of neutrophils in fighting an infection

Very phagocytic (bacteria slayers), engulf bacteria to destroy it

Neutrophils destroy what organism

Bacteria

pH range of blood

7.35-7.45

Making blood cells is called what

Hematopoiesis

universal recipient vs donor

Universal recipient = AB+

Universal donor = O-

what causes normal heart sounds

The closure of heart valves (lub = closure of mitral and tricuspid, dub = closure of aortic and semilunar valves)

What occurs during ventricular systole

The atria are relaxed while the ventricles are contracting, once pressure in ventricles is higher than pressure in atria, AV valves shut to prevent backflow of blood into atria. All valves briefly closed, then ventricles begin to contract, ventricular pressure exceeds pressure of large arteries forcing semilunar valves open

Where does blood flow to in heart

Right atrium, right ventricle, lungs/pulmonary circuit, left atrium, left ventricle, aorta to rest of body

What increases cardiac output (CO)

Increases in heart rate or stroke volume, or both

What is the Cardiac myocyte action potential

Change in voltage across the membrane of a heart muscle cell, triggered by movements of ions through channels

What is responsible for Cardiac myocyte action potential plateau phase

Influx in calcium ions

How does heart compensate for low stroke volume

Either increasing heart rate or using more force to pump each beat

What are Baroreceptors in carotid sinus and aortic arch (get the general idea)

Act as pressure sensors and respond to changes in pressure by communicating with medulla oblongata, results in increased/decreased HR and vasoconstriction/dilation of blood vessels

Baroreceptors are Sensitive to what

Changes in blood pressure

Which vessels have valves

Veins have valves, arteries do not

Most significant source of blood flow resistance

Blood Vessel Diameter

Where does the right lymphatic duct drain

Drains the upper arm and right side of head and thorax

Where does the Thoracic duct drain?

Begins after cisterna chyli, drains the rest of the body

What is MALT

Mucosa-associated-lymphoid-tissue, protects from pathogens trying to enter the body via mucous membranes

What are the MALT tissues

Tonsils, peyers patches, appendix

How does lymph enter lymph node and how does that affect its speed through node

Lymph enters the node via afferent lymphatic vessels, more afferent vessels than efferent, this slows the flow of lymph allowing it time to process the lymph

What is the stimulus for breathing

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

What is TV

Tidal volume, normal breathing in and out of air

What is IRV

Inspiratory reserve volume, maximum amount of air you can breathe in after a normal TV breath in

What is VC

Vital capacity, volumes of TV, ERV, IRV

What is ERV

Expiratory reserve volume, maximum amount of air you can forcefully exhale after a normal TV breath out

Components of respiratory membrane

Wall of the alveolus, basement membrane, and wall of the capillary make up respiratory membrane, about 0.5um thick

Oxygen binding to and dissociation from hemoglobin

Controls oxygen loading and unloading from hemoglobin

Factors affecting Oxygen binding to and dissociation from hemoglobin

Temp, blood pH, PCO2, BPG concentration

What happens to blood pH as CO₂ levels increase

Blood pH decreases, becoming acidic

Surface area and thickness of respiratory membranes

Thickness of about 0.5um, possibly 70-100 sq meters surface area

How does respiratory membrane thickness/surface area How do they affect gas exchange

Larger surface area allows for more simple diffusion to occur across the membrane

role of parasympathetic nervous system

increases the gastric secretions to aid in digestion, also increases digestion rate

role of bile

Fat Emulsifier, breaks fat droplets int smaller droplets, produced in the liver, stored in the gallbladder

LDL vs HDL levels

LDL – Low density lipoproteins, high levels are bad (cholesterol deposits in arterial walls, levels of 160mg/dl or above are undesirable)

HDL – High density lipoproteins, high levels are good (transport cholesterol for degradation, levels above 60 mg/dl are desirable)

What makes stomach acidic, ie, what is produced so stomach is acidic

Hydrochloric acid (HCl), released via parietal cells, pH of 1.5-3.5

Where does stomach acid come from, its source

Stomach acid comes from parietal cells, these are scattered among the chief cells

What is the function of stomach acid

The function of the acid is to break down food by denaturing proteins and breaking down cell walls of plant foods, harsh enough to kill many ingested bacteria’s

What regulates stomach acid,  Be able to name at least 2 things

Parietal cells regulate stomach acid as well as acetylcholine Ach (stimulates parietal cells to secrete HCl)

What is made from one glucose molecule during glycolysis

One glucose makes 2 pyruvic acid molecules

What is glycolysis

Anaerobic (does NOT require oxygen), occurs in the cytosol, produces 2 pyruvic acid molecules for every glucose, final products include 2 pyruvic acid (C3H4O3), 2 NADH + H⁺, and 2 ATP molecules produced via substrate-level phosphorylation

What is the Krebs cycle

Also called Citric acid cycle, Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, pyruvic and fatty acids enter, does not directly use O2, NADH molecules must be oxidized in electron transport chain for Krebs cycle to continue

-       When Krebs cycle makes one full turn/reaction series, it produces 3 NADH, 1 FADH, 2 CO2, and 1 ATP by substrate level phosphorylation

-       Each glucose is split into 2 pyruvic acid molecules, each glucose fuels two turns of the Krebs cycle

-       More one molecule of glucose, you get 6 NADH, 2 FADH, 4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and 2 ATP

Method used to produce ATP

Oxidative phosphorylation, electrons passed from one member of the transport chain to another in a series of reactions

Enzymes that digest starch

Amylase breaks down starch into smaller sugar molecules, examples are salivary amylase in the mouth and pancreatic amylase

Catabolism vs anabolism

Catabolism: Body breaks down larger complex structures to simpler ones (ex. Breaking down proteins into amino acids)

Anabolism: Synthesis of large molecules from smaller ones (ex. Amino acids are made into proteins)

Hormone released due to dehydration

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH), Kidneys will conserve water within the body and prevent excess water loss via urine

  Location of the kidneys

Retroperitoneal ~ T12 to L5, near 12^th rib

What are   Nephrons and associated capillary beds

Nephrons: Structural/functional units of the kidney, forms urine, over one million per kidney, composed of the glomerulus (capillary bed) and the renal tubule.

Glomerulus: High pressure capillary bed where blood plasma is squeezed out of the capillaries to make filtrate (unprocessed urine), filtrate is processed along renal tubule where each region is responsible for reabsorption and secretion of different components of filtrate

·      What makes up the filtration membrane

Fenestrated capillary endothelium

What is ·      Juxtaglomerular apparatus

One per nephron, regulates the rate of filtrate (unprocessed urine) formation through regulating blood pressure within the glomerulus, JGC is how kidneys regulate BP through regulating blood volume

o   Structure that secretes renin

Juxtaglomerular cells

·      Intrinsic vs extrinsic controls

Intrinsic – Macula Densa cells monitor filtrate levels of sodium chloride (NaCl), low levels of NaCl in blood lead to low levels of NaCl in filtrate, macula densa signals granular cells to contract/slow filtrate formation

If GFR ­ filtrate flow rate ­ ¯ reabsorption time  high filtrate NaCl levels  constriction of afferent arteriole  ¯NFP (net filtration pressure) & GFR  more time for NaCl reabsorption, mechanism is revered for low GFR

 

 

Extrinsic – Sympathetic nervous system (works OUTSIDE of kidneys), Only occurs if BP is extremely low

Norepinephrine released by sympathetic ANS and epinephrine is released by adrenal medulla, causes systemic vasoconstriction -> increasing BP, also leads to constriction of afferent arterioles and decreased GFR, increases blood volume/pressure because filtration formation is low

·      Role of caffeine increase GFR, Glomerular Filtration Rate

GFR – volume of filtrate formed per minute by kidneys (normal = 120-125 ml/min), directly proportional to Net Filtration Pressure (NFP), total surface area available for filtration, filtration membrane permeability

Adenosine A1 receptor antagonist – caffeine dilates afferent arteriole

Caffeine Effect on urine output

Caffeine increases urine output (reducing sodium reabsorption), if urine output is increased, GFR could also be increased

Caffeine   Effect on blood volume

Direct stimulatory effects on kidney (afferent arteriole dilation) increases GFR, caffeine is a mild diuretic so blood volume may slightly drop

What is the Bicarbonate buffering system

Uses Carbonic Acid/weak acid (H₂CO₃) and weak base of Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃), buffers both ICF (intracellular fluid) and ECF (Extracellular fluid) but is ONLY important ECF buffer

What is the phosphate buffer system

Uses weak acid of Dihydrogen phosphate (H₂PO₄-) and weak base of hydrogen phosphate (HPO₄^2-) to buffer the ICF and urine, not blood plasma

What is the protein buffer system

ICF and plasma proteins that function as both weak acids and weak bases

What are physiological buffering systems

Rid/retain acid/base in body, act slower than chemical buffering systems

Respiratory system buffering system

Lungs eliminate volatile carbonic acid by eliminating carbon dioxide (CO2), Carbon dioxide combines with water to reversibly make carbonic acid, reversibly dissociates into free hydrogen/bicarbonate ions, Exhaling CO2 pulls reaction left decreasing free hydrogen ions increasing pH

CO₂ + H₂O « H₂CO₃ « H⁺ + HCO₃^–

Renal system Buffering system

Kidneys eliminate acids produced by cellular metabolism (phosphoric acid, uric acid, lactic acid, ketones), kidneys reabsorb/secrete hydrogen and bicarbonate ions

·      Major sources of water input and output

Intake – Beverages, foods, metabolism
Output – Urine, loss via skin/lungs, sweat, feces

·      Role of ANP

Atrial Natriuretic peptide (ANP), Role of regulating water retention in the kidneys, released by atrium of heart in response to stretch (high BP), effects include promoting vasodilation, decreases ADH, renin, aldosterone production

·      Influence of female hormones and stress hormones on water retention

Female hormones (estrogen/progesterone) and stress hormones (cortisol) influence water retention

Estrogen – May affect how body regulates water and sodium causing body to retain more water

Progesterone – Potentially via aldosterone pathways

Cortisol – Influences sodium/water balance, increases sodium reabsorption in kidneys

·      Accessory glands in male reproductive system

Seminal vesicles, Prostate, Bulbo-urethral glands

Why are the testes located in the scrotum in the male reproductive system

Needed to be kept 3C lower than core body temp, this is necessary for sperm production

·      Is there a direct connection between all of the parts of the female reproductive system

No there is no direct connection between all parts of the female reproductive system

·      Layers of the uterus

Endometrium – Mucosal lining of uterus where fertilized egg implants and grows

Myometrium – Thick layer of smooth muscle (labor contractions)

Perimetrium – Serous membrane and the visceral layer of the peritoneum for the uterus

·      Layer of endometrium shed during menstruation

Functional layer (stratum functionalis)

·      Site of sperm production in male reproductive system

Seminiferous tubules

·      Three primary germ layers

Ectoderm – gives rise to skin, nervous system, brain, sensory organs

Mesoderm – Forms muscles, bones, cartilage, connective tissue, blood vessels, kidneys

Endoderm – Develops into lining of digestive, urinary, and glands

·      Where does fertilization happen

Fallopian tubes

·      Basic difference between oogenesis and spermatogenesis

Oogenesis – process of forming gametes (eggs), produces only one viable ovum and polar bodies

Spermatogenesis – Process of forming male gametes (sperm), produces four viable sperm cells

·      The corpus luteum releases a hormone to maintain uterine lining for implantation

What is this hormone

Progesterone