Study Guide for Final Exam (2303 Phil)

Descriptive Statement

Describes how the world is; states facts.

Prescriptive Statement

Tells how the world ought to be; involves values and judgments.

Value Judgments

Assessments of something as good or bad; includes:

• Subjective: Based on personal opinion.

• Intersubjective: Based on shared beliefs within a group.

• Objective: Independent of personal or group opinion.

Emotivism

The belief that moral statements merely express emotional attitudes, not truths.

Egoism

The theory that self-interest is the foundation of morality.

(Cultural) Relativism

The view that moral values are relative to cultural norms.

Consequentialist Moral Theories

Evaluate morality based on the outcomes or consequences.

Non-Consequentialist Moral Theories

Judge actions by principles or duties, regardless of outcomes.

Utilitarianism

The view that right actions maximize overall happiness or utility.

GHP (Greatest Happiness Principle)

Actions are right if they promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Net Balance of Utility

The total amount of good minus harm caused by an action.

Jeremy Bentham

Founder of Utilitarianism; emphasized calculating pleasure and pain.

Immanuel Kant

Deontologist; believed moral duties arise from reason.

Deontology

Ethical theory focused on following rules or duties.

Duties & Rights

Moral obligations and corresponding entitlements.

Universalizability

A principle is moral if it can apply to everyone consistently.

Means-to-an-End vs. Ends-in-Themselves

People should be treated as ends (with dignity), not mere tools.

Categorical Imperatives

Kant’s absolute moral laws, applicable to all rational beings.

Precipitating/Proximal/Immediate Causes

The most immediate or direct cause of an event.

Remote/Distal Causes

Underlying or earlier causes in a causal chain.

Causal Network

The complex web of interacting causes leading to an event.

Phenomena

Observable events or facts in the world.

Hypotheses (hn)

Tentative explanations made before investigation.

Theories

Well-supported systems of ideas explaining phenomena.

Predictions (pdn)

Expected outcomes derived from a hypothesis or theory.

Evidence (evn)

Facts collected to test hypotheses and theories.

Steps of the Scientific Method

Observation

Question

Hypothesis

Prediction

Experiment

Conclusion

Experiments

Controlled procedures to test hypotheses.

(Dis-)Confirmation

Process of verifying or falsifying a hypothesis or theory.

Superstition

Belief without scientific basis, often relying on faith or tradition.

Modus Ponens (MP)

If P, then Q. P is true. Therefore, Q is true.

Modus Tollens (MT)

If P, then Q. Q is false. Therefore, P is false.

Empirical Adequacy

The theory fits all known facts.

Theoretical Coherence

Fits with other well-supported theories.

Explanatory Depth and Breadth

Explains a wide range of phenomena deeply.

Parsimony

Simplicity; fewer assumptions are better.

Predictions & Predictive Power

Ability to forecast future events accurately.

Testability

A theory’s ability to be tested by observation or experiment.

Falsifiability

Whether a theory can, in principle, be proven false.

Evolution

The process by which species change over time through natural mechanisms.

Creationism

The belief that life was created by a divine being.

Fossils

Preserved remains of ancient organisms.

Carbon Dating

Method of determining age based on radioactive decay.

Survival of the Fittest

Organisms best adapted to their environment survive and reproduce.

Natural Selection

Process by which traits that enhance survival become more common.

Genes & Genetic Mutations

Units of heredity; mutations introduce variation into populations.

Charles Darwin

Father of evolution by natural selection.

Controlled Experiments

Tests where only one variable is changed at a time.

Control Group

Group not exposed to the experimental treatment.

Experimental Group

Group that receives the treatment or condition.

Placebos

Substances with no active effect, used to test psychological factors.