Patho chapter 2

injurious agents are also known as?

etiologic agents

Etiology is?

original cause of a cellular alteration or disease

the etiology of a sore throat is?

streptococcus

exposure to extreme cold temps will cause localized?

frostbite and tissue necrosis

exposure to electrical current can?

burn tissue and cause cardiac rhythm disturbances

alcohol abuse can cause?

liver to become fatty

can cells maintain homeostasis in the face or temporary stressors insults, or changes in environment

yes, prolonged exposure causes disruption

in cirrhosis of the liver, cells begin to die and an individual will lose function of?

metabolizing and detoxifying

-will begin to atrophy

under the influence of different etiological agents, cell can develop:

-Adaptive=

-Maladaptive=

-compensatory changes to maintain homeostasis

-alter structure or function

the point at which cells can no longer achieve reversible changes carries based on?

the type of cell it is

brain cells cannot withstand hypoxia for more than?

6 min

cellular adaptions and maladaptive changes occur as a result of?

-specific disease process

-altered cell function

-environmental influences

microscopic study of tissues and cells

-yields important diagnostic information for the clinician

Histology

what is a biopsy?

extracting a cell sample from an organ or tissue for histological examination

unique histological findings that represent distinct disease processes are referred to as?

pathognomonic changes

Pathognomonic changes are?

unique histological findings that represent disease processes

is a crater like breach in the gastrointestinal mucosa pathognomic for peptic ulcer disease?

yes

are histological changes examined on autopsy specimen?

yes

atrophy is a cellular adaption in which the cells will?

revert to a smaller size in response to changes in metabolic requirements or environment

does atrophy occur when a cells environment cannot support its metabolic requirements?

yes

paralysis causes:

-a lack of

-loss of

-decreased

-muscle contraction

nerve stimulation

-workload of muscles

what are some causes of cellular atrophy? (6)

-diminished workload

-lack of nerve stimuli

-loss of hormonal stimulation

-inadequate nutrition

-ischemia

-aging

hypertrophy is an?

increase in individual cell size that result in enlargement of functioning tissue mass

true or false

in hypertrophy each individual cell becomes larger?

True

-leading to greater metabolic demand and energy need

when can hypertrophy occur?

as a result of normal physiological stimuli or abnormal pathological stimuli

exercise stimulates angiogenesis which is?

the growth of new blood vessels that supply the enlarged muscle

does exercise increase the number of mitochondria in each muscle cell (and energy production)?

yes

the stimulus for hypertrophy increases the muscles cells ____ and ____ filaments, enzymes, mitochondria, angiogenesis, ATP production

actin and myosin

in physiological hypertrophy the enlarged muscle is?

adequately perfused and supplies with blood flow, oxygen, and nutrients because of angiogenesis

pathological hypertrophy occurs when?

there is an increase in cell without the increase in supportive structures needed for the increased metabolic needs

can pathological hypertrophy of cells occur in disease process or be a compensatory maladaptation to changed environmental conditions?

both

in hypertension, blood pressure within the aorta and systemic arterial circulation is elevated creating a higher work load for the left ventricle, what occurs after?

each cardiac muscle cell undergoes pathological hypertrophy

inadequate blood flow to the heart is?

ischemia

can ischemia occur due to hypertension?

yes, causes left ventricle too undergo hypertrophy

an increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ

-only in tissue with cells that can undergo mitotic division

hyperplasia

what is hyperplasia?

an increase in the number of cells in an organ tissue

-only in tissues with cells that can undergo mitotic division

does hyperplasia occur in epithelium or glandular tissue?

yes

what is an example of hormonal stimulation hyperplasia?

in pregnancy

-when estrogen results in mitotic division of breast gland cells

what is a maladaptive hyperplastic accumulation of epithelial cells and CT that can occur in wound healing?

a Keloid

a keloid creates an elevated?

disfigured scar that requires cosmetic surgery

its is believed that human organs contain limited populations of self-renewing cells called?

stem cells

hyperplasia caused by hormonal stimulation occurs in elderly males. as males age prostate gland cells increase in number because of testosterone stimulation. as a result what occurs?

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)

metaplasia is?

the replacement of one cell type by another cell type

metaplasia is the replacement of one cell type by another cell type likely as a result of ?

cells genetic reprogramming in response to change in environment

what is an example of metaplasia?

GERD = gastroesophageal reflux disease

-normal squamous epithelium cells turn into columnar stomach like cells

in GERD normal squamous epithelium cells of the lower esophageal sphincter is become?

columnar stomach like cells

a degraded cellular growth within a specific tissue often as a result of chronic inflammation or precancerous condition

dysplasia

true or false

on a histological exam dysplastic cells do not vary in shape, size, and architectural organizations compared wit healthy cells

false, they do.

cervical dysplasia if often detected on?

Pap test

dysplasia on a pap requires frequent examinations because?

its a precursor to cancer in cervix

what are these?

Hyperplasia

Metaplasia

Dysplasia

1. hyperplasia = increase in number of cells in tissue/organ

2. metaplasia = replacement of one cell type by another

3. dysplasia = deranged cellular growth within a specific tissue (as a result of inflammation or precancerous condition)

neoplasia is?

-new growth

-disorganized, uncoordinated, uncontrolled cell growth that is cancerous

neoplas is often interchangeable with the word?

tumor

can neoplasms be classified as benign or malignant?

both

-depending on differentiation

differentiation is the process where newly growing cells acquire?

specialized structure and function of the cells replaced

lack of sufficient ATP contributes to failure of the active transport mechanism the?

Na+/K+ pump

under normal healthy circumstances the Na+/K+ expels __ Na from the _____ environment and pumps __ K+ in

3 Na from the intracellular enviornemt and pumps 2 K+ in

does the Na+/K+ pump contribute to the development of membrane polarity in excitable tissues (muscles cells and neurons) ?

yes

the Na+/K+ pump maintains normal ______ relationships between ions, with Na being the major extracellular ion and K+ the major intracellular ions

osmotic

when osmotic balance is altered the intracellular sodium ion concentration is?

increased

-not beings pumped out of cell

when sodium ion concentration has increased, the intracellular sodium draws in water leading to?

cellular edema

What other pump does a lack of ATP effect ?

the calcium pump

on a mammogram, microcalification often indicates?

tissues has cancerous changes

loss of the plasma membrane can cause?

-damage to organelles

-damage mitochondria (halt ATP_

-cause cellular edema

-damage DNA

when there is a decrease in ATP there is also a decrease in _____ synthesis

protein

-can lead to cell degeneration or cell death

intracellular accumulation can occur in the liver when expose to excessive amounts of?

alcohol

-hepatocytes sustain toxic injury from alcohol and accumulate large amounts of intracellular fat

Hypercholesterolemia is a condition that causes defective cholesterol metabolism. ______ and _____ are yellow raised skin lesions that develop because of ?

Xanthomas and Xanthelasma

accumulation of excess cholesterol

Xanthomas and Xanthelasma are yellow raised skin lesions that develop because of?

accumulation of cholesterol

what is an example of enviornmentally derived cellular accumulation?

Anthracosis or coal miners lung

an accumulation of bilirubin in the bloodstream causes?

jaundice

if excess ___ breakdown or ___ dysfunction occurs billirubin will accumulate in the blood stream

RBC breakdown or liver

mutated DNA will be transcribed in the nucleus to produce mutated

RNA

mutated DNA will be transcribes in the nucleus to produced mutated RNA that will then in tuen direct ribosome to?

produce abnormal proteins and secretions

changes in cells DNA will initiate changes that bring about genetically programed cell death known as?

apoptosis

programed cell death

apoptosis

true or false

hypoxia is the most common cause of cell injury?

true

hypoxia occurs when the blood cannot?

deliver enough oxygen to the cells

what is the most common cause of hypoxia ?

ischemia.

ischemia occurs most often because of?

obstruction arterial blood flow

obstruction of arterial blood flow is due to?

atherosclerotic plaque

true or false

anemia can cause cellular hypoxia ?

true

-blood lacks Hgb which carries oxygen = hypoxia

hypoxia cause the cell to enter?

anaerobic metabolism

-generates 2 ATP, low energy and pyruvic acid

what can cause hypoxia?

-exposure to low concentrations of oxygen in environment

-pneumonia

-inflammation of oropharyngeal tissues

all choices

free radicals are?

single unpaired electron in valence shell

oxidizing agents with the ability to penetrate the cells plasma membrane, disrupt internal organelles and range the nucleus and its DNA

free radicals

enzymes that remove free radicals are?

superoxide dismutases

when free radicals overwhelm the mechanism of removal this can form a cell injury known as?

oxidative stress

individuals can counteract free radicals through consumption of?

Antioxidants

-vitamin A, E, C, and beta-carotene

does oxidative stress commonly occur in cells that undergo ischemia-reperfsusion injury?

yes

heart disease commonly involves ischemic-reperfusion injury which often occurs when a blood clot that obstructs a coronary artery causes?

cardiac muscle ischemia

-free radicals are by-products

hypertension is high pressure in the arteries, under constant stress the force of blood the arterial endothelium will cause?

injury = development of atherosclerosis

chemical injury can be caused by either endogenous or exogenous meaning?

endogenous = chemical within our body

exogenous = synthetic substance

what is hypernatremia?

high sodium levels in the blood stream

what does hypernatermia cause?

cellular dehydration

true or false

symptoms associated with hypernatermia are lethargy, weakness, irritability, and confusion

true

in uncontrolled diabetes mellitus (DM) high glucose levels in the bloodstream are termed?

hyperglycemia

high levels of blood glucose react with endothelial membrane constituents to yield a substance called?

Advanced glycation end products

Advanced glycation end products can damage?

-coronary and cerebral arteries

-kidney arteries

-vessels of lower extremities

retina of eyes

can endothelial injury associated with uncontrolled DM initiate the process of atherosclerosis?

yes