Module 8

Memory

Memory

the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time

encoding

the input of information into the memory system.

automatic processing and effortful processing.

. Encoding information occurs through

Automatic processing

the encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words.  is usually done without any conscious awareness.

effortful processing

required a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information

semantic encoding.

Visual encoding

 acoustic encoding

There are three types of encoding.

semantic encoding

. The encoding of words and their meaning is

Visual encoding

the encoding of images,

acoustic encoding

the encoding of sounds, words in particular.

High-imagery words are encoded both visually and semantically

why do high0magery words build a stronger memory

Craik and Tulving

concluded that we process verbal information best through semantic encoding, especially if we apply what is called the self-reference effect.

 self-reference effect i

the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance

Storage 

the creation of a permanent record of information

Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and finally Long-Term Memory.

In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to pass through three distinct stages:

Atkinson and Shiffrin's model

model of human memory is based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information.

Baddeley and Hitch

proposed a working memory model in which short-term memory has different forms. In their model, storing memories in short-term memory is like opening different files on a computer and adding information.

sensory memory

storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage—up to a couple of seconds.

Short-term memory (STM)

a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory. is more accurately described as a component of working memory

Short-term memory storage lasts 15 to 30 seconds

how long does short term memory last

Rehearsal 

moves information from short-term memory to long-term memory

Active rehearsal

a way of attending to information to move it from short-term to long-term memory

elaborative rehearsal

he act of linking new information you are trying to learn to existing information that you already know.

Craik and Lockhart

proposed the levels of processing hypothesis that states the deeper you think about something, the better you remember it.

5 and 9, or 7 plus or minus two

George Miller reviewed most of the research on the capacity of short-term memory and found that people can retain between ___and ____ items

Memory trace decay and interference

two factors that affect short-term memory retention.

18 seconds

without rehearsal, iformation is lost from working memory after how long

proactive interference,

previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn new information

a few hours; weeks or longer

Once the information reaches long-term memory, it has to be consolidated at both the synaptic level, which takes _________, and into the memory system, which can take __________

Long-term memory (LTM

he continuous storage of information, storage capacity is believed to be unlimited. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than just a few minutes ago

concepts

categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences. are believed to be arranged hierarchically in the mind

how often two concepts have been associated.

Related concepts are linked, and the strength of the link depends on;

spreading activation

activating any part of a semantic network also activates the concepts linked to that part to a lesser degree

explicit and implicit

There are two types of long-term memory: 

Explicit memories is sometimes referred to as declarative memory, because it can be put into words.

MEMORIES we consciously try to remember, recall, and report.

episodic memory and semantic memory.

Explicit memory is divided into

Episodic memory

 is information about events we have personally experienced, is reported as a story.

Semantic memory

knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts, is typically reported as facts.

Implicit memories 

long-term memories that are not part of our consciousness. is demonstrated in the performance of some task

procedural memory

stores information about the way to do something, and it is the memory for skilled actions, such as brushing your teeth, riding a bicycle, or driving a car.

priming

exposure to a stimulus affects the response to a later stimulus.

emotional conditioning

the type of memory involved in classically conditioned emotion responses

retrieval

The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness

recall, recognition, and relearning

There are three ways you can retrieve information out of your long-term memory storage system

Recall 

access information without cues

Recognition 

happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again

relearning

learning information that you previously learned

loci approach, or memory palace

the individual forms mental images of words or objects and places them in specific locations along a familiar route. To retrieve this information, the individual takes a mental stroll through the familiar space.

Edward Tolman and colleagues

They tested performance on a complex maze every day for three weeks under three different conditions: no food reward, food reward, and food reward after day 10.

Morris Water Maze

a pool filled with opaque water with a platform just underneath the surface. Rodents don’t like swimming, so they instinctively search for a way out and eventually find the platform to escape from the water.

Amnesia 

the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma.

anterograde amnesia and retrograde

There are two common types of amnesia:

anterograde amnesia

is commonly caused by brain trauma, such as a blow to the head. you cannot remember new information, although you can remember information and events that happened prior to your injury

hippocampus

what is affected in aterograde amnesia

Retrograde amnesia

 is loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma.

construction

The formulation of new memories is sometimes called

reconstruction

the process of bringing up old memories is called

Suggestibility 

the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories

Elizabeth Loftus

has conducted extensive research on memory. She has studied false memories as well as recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. lso developed the misinformation effect paradigm,

misinformation effect paradigm

holds that after exposure to additional and possibly inaccurate information, a person may misremember the original event.

false memory syndrome

Recall of false autobiographical memories

Forgetting 

refers to loss of information from long-term memory.

Encoding Failure

Sometimes memory loss happens before the actual memory process begins,

the seven sins of memory and categorizes them into three groups:

Daniel Schacter the seven sins of memory and categorizes them into three groups:

transience

memories can fade over time

absentmindedness

lapses in memory caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else.

blocking

you can’t access stored information

misattribution, suggestibility, and bias.

the three errors of distortion

Misattribution 

happens when you confuse the source of your information.

bias

says that your feelings and view of the world can actually distort your memory of past events.

Stereotypical bias

involves racial and gender biases.

Egocentric bias

involves enhancing our memories of the past

Hindsight bias

happens when we think an outcome was inevitable after the fact. “I knew it all along”

persistence

When you keep remembering something, to the point where you can’t “get it out of your head” and it interferes with your ability to concentrate on other things, a failure of our memory system because we involuntarily recall unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones

interference

Sometimes information is stored in our memory, but for some reason it is inaccessible.

proactive interference

when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information. 

Retroactive interference

 happens when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information.

engram

the group of neurones that serve as the “physical representation of memory”

equipotentiality hypothesis:

if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory function

the amygdala, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex

The main parts of the brain involved with memory are [4]

to regulate emotions, such as fear and aggression. a part in how memories are stored because storage is influenced by stress hormones.

The main job of the amygdala

The amygdala seems to facilitate encoding memories at a deeper level when the event is emotionally arousing.

How is the amygdala involved in memory consolidation

specifically normal recognition memory as well as spatial memory.Another job of the hippocampus is to project information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other memories.

how is hippocampus involved in memory

leaves us unable to process new declarative memories.

hippocampus injury results in what

e able to create implicit memories (procedural memory, motor learning, and classical conditioning),

cerebellum and memory:

epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine

pecific neurotransmitters involved with the process of memory,

arousal theory

strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories

glutamate

When humans and animals are stressed, the brain secretes more of the neurotransmitter _______

flashbulb memory

an exceptionally clear recollection of an important event

memory-enhancing strategies

To help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory, you can use 

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information to be remembered

chunking

you organize information into manageable bits. is useful when trying to remember information like dates and phone numbers

elaborative rehearsal

a technique in which you think about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory

Mnemonic devices

memory aids that help us organize information for encoding. They are especially useful when we want to recall larger bits of information such as steps, stages, phases, and parts of a system

improves your memory for the word because it increases the word’s distinctiveness

how does saying things out loud increase memory

self-reference effect

Write notes in your own words. Write definitions from the text, and then rewrite them in your own words. you are building a web of retrieval cues that will help you access the material when you want to remember it.

distributed practice

Study across time in short durations rather than trying to cram it all in at once. allows time for memories to consolidate