Crim Exam 2

deterrence theory

theory of crime associated with the Classical School; proposes that individuals will make rational decisions regarding their behavior

classical school

a model of crime that assumes that crime occurs after a rational individual mentally weighs the potential good and bad consequences of crime and then makes a decision about whether to engage in a given behavior

*Levianthan* hobbes

proposed a rational theory for why people are motivated to form democratic states of governance.8 Hobbes proclaimed that people are rational, so they will logically organize a sound system of governance to create rules that will help alleviate the constant fear of offense by others

age on enlightenment

a period of the late 17th to 18th century in which philosophers and scholars began to emphasize the rights of individuals in society

social contract

an Enlightenment ideal or assumption that stipulates an unspecified

utilitarianism

a philosophical concept that relates to the idea of the greatest good for the

most people

mens rea

a concept regarding whether offenders actually knew what they were doing and

meant to do it

actus rea

in legal terms, whether the offender actually engaged in a given criminal act (guilty act)

brutalization effect

the predicted tendency of homicides to increase after an execution, particularly after high-profile executions

swiftness of punishment

the assumption that the sooner an offender is punished (for a crime of which he or she is guilty), the more he or she will be deterred from breaking the law

certainty of punishment

one of the key elements of deterrence; the assumption is that

people perceive a high likelihood of being caught and punished if they commit a crime

severity of punishment

the assumption that a given punishment must be serious enough to outweigh any potential benefits gained from a crime

specific deterrence

punishments given to individual offenders that are meant to prevent or deter them from committing crime in the future

general deterrence

punishments given to individual offenders that are meant to prevent or deter others from engaging in similar criminal activity

neoclassical school

assumes that aggravating and mitigating circumstances should be taken into account for purposes of sentencing and punishing an offender

Supernatural/religious/metaphysical theories

__concepts:__ full moon, lightning, god/gods

__proponents:__ Various pre-Classical groups, most common belief among

societies prior to Enlightenment period

__propositions:__ Crime is caused by Satan (i.e., “the Devil made

them do it”) or exceptional phenomena (e.g., full moon, thunderstorms)

classical theory

__concepts:__ rationality, free will, social contract, deterrence theory, swiftness of punishment, certainty of punishment, severity of punishment

__proponents:__ Cesare Beccari and Jeremy Bentham

__propositions:__ Individuals have rational thought and decide to commit crime based on perceived risk of being caught/punished

neoclassical perspective

__concept:__ Takes into account the contextual factors in a given crime in terms of punishment but assumes all other propositions of the Classical School

(e.g., rationality, free will, deterrence)

__proponents:__ no one key proponent, but this is the model all criminal justice systems in the Western world are based on (e.g., United States)

__propositions:__ same as classical school but takes into account mitigating and aggravating factors when deciding the sentence for a given criminal activity

aggregate studies

collections of studies, generally on a particular topic

cross-sectional study

type of research design in which a collection of data is taken at one point in time (often in survey format)

experiential effect

extent to which previous experience affects individuals' perceptions of how severe criminal punishment will be when deciding whether or not to offend again

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

scenario research

studies that involve providing participants with specific hypothetical scenarios and then asking them what they would do in each situation

vignettes

short, descriptive sketches or hypothetical narratives

formal/official deterrence

deterrent effects of law enforcement, courts, and corrections

informal deterrence

Crime deterrent factors such as family, church, and friends that do not involve official aspects of criminal justice such as police, courts, and corrections (e.g., prisons)

Rational Choice Theory

a modern, Classical School-based framework for explaining crime that includes the traditional formal deterrence aspects and other informal factors that studies show consistently and strongly influence behavior

routine activities theory

an explanation of crime that assumes that crime and victimization are highest in places where three factors come together in time and place: motivated offenders, suitable or attractive targets, and absence of a guardian

Rational Choice Theory summary

__concepts:__ Includes all traditional deterrence factors but

adds informal factors (family, friends) and benefits of the crime (payoff and thrill of offending)

__proponents:__ Ronald Clarke and Derek Cornish

__propositions:__ Assumes virtually all aspects of the traditional deterrence model but adds concepts that go into individuals’ decisions to engage in criminal activity: The more a person believes his or her family, friends, and so forth will look down on the behavior, the more likely it is that he or she will be deterred. The higher the expected pleasure or payoff of the crime, the less likely it is that a person will be deterred

Routine activities theory summary

__concepts:__ likely opportunity for victimization given three factors: motivated offender, attractive/suitable target, absence of guardianship

__proponents:__ Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson

__propositions:__ Victimization/crime is much more likely to occur when three elements converge in time and place (see “Concepts”), typically as an individual goes about daily activities, such as going to school or work or hanging out.

lifestyles perspective

__concepts:__ risky lifestyles of offenders/victims

__proponents:__ various

__propositions:__ very similar propositions to routine activities theory but emphasizes the risky behavior (such as hanging out at seedy bars) of offenders as opposed to victims

Positive School

a perspective that assumes individuals have no free will to control their behavior

eugenics

study of factors that influence the hereditary qualities of the human race and ways to improve those qualities

Craniometry

A 19th-century field of study that emphasized the belief that the size of the brain or skull reflected superiority or inferiority, with larger brains and skulls being considered superior

Phrenology

the science of determining human dispositions based on distinctions (e.g., bumps) in the skull, which believed to conform to the shape of the brain

Physiogonomy

the study of facial and other bodily aspects to identify developmental problems, such as criminality

atavism

belief that certain characteristics or behaviors of a person are throwbacks to an earlier stage of evolutionary development

stigmata

the physical manifestations of atavism (biological inferiority), according to Lombroso

determinism

the assumption that human behavior is caused by factors outside of free will and rational decision making

Minor Physical Anomalies

Physical features, such as asymmetrical or low-seated ears, which are believed to indicate developmental problems

feeble-mindedness

technical, scientific term in the early 1900s meaning those who had significantly below-average levels of intelligence

somatotyping

The area of study, primarily attributed to William Sheldon, that links body type to likelihood of delinquent and criminal behavior. Also, as a methodology, it is a way of ranking body types based on three categories: endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy

endoderm

the medical term for the inner layer of tissue in our bodies

mesoderm

the medical term for the middle layer of tissue in our bodies

ectoderm

the medical term for the outer later of tissues in our bodies

viscertonic

according to somatotyping, the type of temperament or personality associated with an endomorphic (obese) body type; these people tend to be jolly, lazy, and happy-go-lucky.

somatotonic

The type of temperament or personality associated with a mesomorphic (muscular) body type; these people tend to be risk-taking and aggressive.

cerebrotonic

the type of temperament or personality associated with an ectomorphic (thin) body type; these people tend to be introverted and shy

crainometry

__proponent:__ various

__concept:__ brain/skull size

__proposition:__ larger skulls/brains are superior

phrenology summary

__proponent:__ various

__concept:__ bumps on skull

__proposition:__ abnormalities on the skull revel deficiencies

physiognomy sumary

__proponent:__ various

__concept:__ facial/bodily attributes

__proposition:__ certain facial or body features reveal the inferiority

Atavism/born criminal

__proponents:__ Lombroso

__concept:__ variety of stigmata identify "born criminals"

__proposition:__ stigmata reveal individuals likely to be born criminals

IQ/ feeble-mindedness

__proponents:__ Binet (invented IQ) and Goddard used in the US

__concepts:__ IQ identifies who is superior/inferior

__proposition:__ low-IQ persons are likely criminals

body-type theories

__proponent:__ sheldon

__concept:__ tissue-layer growth in embryonic stage leads to body type

__proposition:__ body type determines personality and behavior

family studies

studies that examine the clustering of criminality in a given family

\*\*Dugdale and Goddard\*\*

twin studies

studies that examine the relative concordance rates for monozygotic versus dizygotic twins

monozygotic twins

pairs of twins who come from a single egg thus share 100% of their genetic makeup

dizygotic twins

pairs of twins who come from separate eggs thus share only 50% of the genetic makeup that can vary

concordance rates

rates at which twin pairs either share or lack a certain trait (e.g., criminality)

adoption studies

studies that examine the criminality of adoptees as compared with the criminality of their biological and adoptive parents

\*\*Mednick\*\*

selective placement

A policy of placing adoptees in households that resemble that of their biological parents; thus, children of rich biological parents are placed in rich adoptive households

cytogentic studies

studies of crime that focus on the individual's genetic makeup, with a specific focus on chromosomal abnormalities

neurotransmitters

nervous-system chemicals in the brain and body that help transmit electric signals from one neuron to another

low levels of serotonin predict more criminality

dopamine

a neurotransmitter that is largely responsible for good feelings in the brain; it is increased by many illicit drugs

serotonin

a neurotransmitter that is key in information-processing and most consistently linked to criminal behavior in its deficiency; low levels have been linked to depression and other mental illnesses

frontal lobes

the frontal region of the brain, most of the executive functions of the brain, such as problem-solving, take place here

temporal lobes

a region of the brain responsible for a variety of functions and located right above many primary limbic structures that govern our emotional and memory functions

central nervous system

the portion of the nervous system that largely consists of brain and spinal column and is responsible for our voluntary actions and all higher functions slow brain-wave patterns predict criminality

autonomic nervous system

The portion of the nervous system that controls our anxiety levels, such as the fight-or-flight response, as well as our involuntary motor activities lower function predicts criminality

phenotype

an observed manifestation of the interaction between an individual's genotypical traits and his or her environment, such as that individuals height role of biology in behavior

twin studies summary

MZ twins have higher concordance than DZ twins

MZ twins separated at birth

Criminality among MZ twins reared apart are similar

cytogenetic studies

__Proponent__: Jacobs

__concept:__ chromosomal mutations

__proposition:__ XYY indivudals have more criminality

hormonal theory

higher levels of testosterone and lower levels of estrogen predict criminality

brain injury

trauma to certain portions of the brain (e.g., frontal lobes) and structures (limbic structures) predict criminality

Biosocial Interaction Theory

weak physiological factors interact with weak social and environmental factors to predict criminality

relative deprivation

the heightened perception of inequality that results when relatively poor people live in close proximity to relatively wealthy people

collective conscience

according to Durkheim, the extent to which people in a society share similarities or likeness; the stronger the collective conscience, the less crime in that community

mechanical societies

In Durkheim's theory, primitive societies with a simple distribution of labor (e.g., hunters and gatherers) and thus a high level of agreement regarding social norms and rules because nearly everyone is engaged in the same roles

organiza societies

in the Durkheimian model, those societies that have a high division of labor and thus a low level of agreement about societal norms, largely because everyone has such different roles in society

anomie

a concept originally proposed by Durkheim, which meant normless or the chaos that takes place when a society changes very rapidly

adaptations to strain

As proposed by Merton, the five ways that individuals deal with feelings of strain; see conformity, innovation, rebellion, retreatism, and ritualism.

conformity

an adaptation to strain in which an individual buys into conventional goals (wealth) and conventional means of attaining them (work)

ritualism

an adaptation to strain in which an individual buys into conventional means (work, school, etc.) of attaining goals but does not buy into conventional goals (wealth, success, etc.).

innovation

an adaptation to strain in which an individual buys into conventional goals (wealth, success, etc.) but not conventional means of reaching those goals. (most common to be criminal)

retreatism

an adaptation to strain in which an individual does not buy into conventional goals and also does not buy into conventional means of reaching them.

rebellion

an adaptation to strain in which an individual buys into the idea of conventional goals and means of reaching them but does not buy into the current conventional means or goals.

reaction formation (cohen)

a Freudian defense mechanism applied to Cohen's theory of youth offending, which involves adopting attitudes or committing behaviors that are opposite of \\n what is expected.

delinquent boy (cohen)

a type of lower-class male youth, identified by Cohen, who responds to strain and status frustration by joining with similar youths to commit crime

college boy (cohen)

a type of lower-class male youth who has experienced the same strain and status frustration as his peers but responds to his disadvantaged situation by dedicating himself to doing well in school despite his unlikely chance of success

corner boy (cohen)

a type of lower-class male youth who has experienced the same strain and status frustration as others but responds to his disadvantaged situation by accepting his \n place in society as someone who will somewhat passively make the best of life at the bottom of the social order. As the label describes, such youths often hang out on corners

criminal gang

a type of gang identified by Cloward and Ohlin that forms in lower-class neighborhoods with an organized structure of adult criminal behavior. Such gangs tend to be highly organized and stable

conflict gang

a type of gang identified by Cloward and Ohlin that tends to develop in neighborhoods with weak stability and little or no organization; gangs are typically relatively disorganized and lack the skills and knowledge to make a profit through criminal activity

retreatist gang

a type of gang identified by Cloward and Ohlin that tends to attract individuals who have failed to succeed in both the conventional world and the criminal or conflict gangs of their neighborhoods

realtive deprivation theory

Areas that have the greatest differences in wealth in close proximity (i.e., very poor living near very rich) tend to have the highest crime rates.

\*\*Quetelet\*\*

early European social structure theories

Violent crime rates tend to be highest in poor areas, whereas property crimes tend to cluster in wealthier areas

\*\*Guerry\*\*

Early strain theory

Societies evolve from mechanical to organic, with the former having a limited division of labor/roles, which strengthens the “collective conscience” of members. As the division of labor increases in the move to a more organic society, the collective conscience breaks down and results in “normlessness” or anomie.

\*\*Durkeheim\*\*

Merton’s Strain Theory

U.S. economic structure causes a differential emphasis on the goals (“wealth”) compared with the conventional means of obtaining the goals, which results in anomie. Individuals with limited access to success and wealth adapt to such strain in different ways, with many innovating ways to achieve the goals via illegal methods instead of through legitimate means

Lower-frustration theory (Cohen)

Lower-class youth are not prepared for school and are at a disadvantage because schools are based on middle-class norms. Due to failure at school, they socialize with other “failures” and defy the middle-class norms/rules (“reaction formation”), which leads to gang formation. Different adaptations to this frustration exist, with delinquent boys being the most likely to commit crimes.

Differential opportunities theory

gangs in lower-class city areas are a manifestation of the type of neighborhood structure that exists there, as well as the ability of youths to be accepted by adult criminal enterprises. Some youths are given opportunities to engage in illegal structures (e.g., the mafia), and others are blocked from these illegitimate opportunities as well as legitimate ones.

\*\*Cloward and Ohlin\*\*