BIO 114 Lecture Notes Vocabulary

Flashcards covering key vocabulary terms and definitions from BIO 114 lecture notes, spanning topics from scientific methods and organic molecules to genetics, evolution, and ecology.

Scientific Method

A systematic approach to understanding the natural world, involving observation, hypothesis formation, experimental design, data analysis, and conclusion.

Organic Molecule

A molecule containing carbon and hydrogen, often with covalent bonding.

Inorganic Molecule

A molecule that typically does not contain both carbon and hydrogen (e.g., NH3, H2O, CO2).

Covalent Bonding

A type of chemical bond where atoms share valence electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration.

Ionic Bonding

A chemical bond involving the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions.

Hydrogen Bonding

A non-covalent interaction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen).

Dehydration

A chemical reaction that removes water to create a bond, synthesizing larger molecules (anabolic).

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction that breaks a bond by adding water, breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones (catabolic).

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Lipids

A group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water, including fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids; used for energy storage, membrane structure, and hormones.

Proteins

Macromolecules composed of amino acid monomers, folded into complex 3D structures, and perform diverse functions such as enzymes, structural support, and antibodies.

Nucleic Acids

Macromolecules (DNA and RNA) composed of nucleotide monomers, storing and transmitting genetic information.

Saturated Lipids

Lipids composed of fatty acids with only single bonds between carbon atoms.

Unsaturated Lipids

Lipids composed of fatty acids with one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms.

Denaturation

The process where a protein loses its native 3D structure, often leading to loss of function, caused by factors like heat, pH, or salt concentration.

Golgi Apparatus

A eukaryotic organelle responsible for processing, packaging, and transporting proteins and lipids.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A network of membranes within eukaryotic cells involved in protein synthesis and modification.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

A network of membranes within eukaryotic cells involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.

Ribosomes

Cellular structures composed of RNA and proteins that serve as the site of protein synthesis.

Mitochondrion

A double-membraned organelle responsible for ATP production through cellular respiration.

Lysosomes

Organelles containing digestive enzymes for breaking down cellular waste and debris.

Peroxisomes

Organelles involved in breaking down peroxides and other toxic molecules.

Chloroplasts

Organelles found in plant cells responsible for photosynthesis.

Cytoskeleton

A network of protein filaments (actin, intermediate filaments, microtubules) that provides structural support and facilitates movement within cells.

Fluid Mosaic Model

A model describing the plasma membrane as a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that can move laterally.

Isotonic Solution

A solution with the same solute concentration as another solution it is compared to, resulting in no net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane.

Hypotonic Solution

A solution with a lower solute concentration than another solution, causing cells to swell as water enters.

Hypertonic Solution

A solution with a higher solute concentration than another solution, causing cells to shrink as water exits.

Active Transport

The movement of molecules across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy (ATP).

Passive Transport

The movement of molecules across a cell membrane without the input of energy, following the concentration gradient.

Exocytosis

The process by which cells release large molecules into the external environment via vesicles.

Endocytosis

The process by which cells take in small molecules or particles by engulfing them in vesicles.

Diffusion

The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Osmosis

The movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions that occur within a living organism, including catabolism and anabolism.

Catabolism

The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy.

Anabolism

The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy.

Enzyme

A protein that catalyzes (speeds up) biochemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.

Active Site

The specific region of an enzyme where the substrate binds and catalysis occurs.

Coenzyme

An organic molecule that assists an enzyme in catalyzing a reaction.

Cofactor

An inorganic ion or a coenzyme that is required for enzyme activity.

Thermodynamics (First Law)

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed; the total energy of the universe is constant.

Thermodynamics (Second Law)

Energy transformations are not 100% efficient; some energy is always lost as heat, increasing entropy.

Oxidation

The loss of electrons from a molecule or atom.

Reduction

The gain of electrons by a molecule or atom.

Exergonic

A reaction that releases energy (-ΔG), making it spontaneous.

Endergonic

A reaction that requires energy (+ΔG), making it non-spontaneous.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate, a molecule that stores and releases energy for cellular processes.

Photosynthesis

The process by which plants and other organisms convert light energy into chemical energy, synthesizing sugars from carbon dioxide and water.

Cellular Respiration

The process by which cells break down glucose to produce ATP, using oxygen (aerobic) or without oxygen (anaerobic).

Mitosis

A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.

Meiosis

A type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.

Allele

A variant form of a gene at a particular locus.

Gene

A unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring.

Locus

The specific location or position of a gene, DNA sequence, on a chromosome.

Dominant Allele

An allele that produces the same phenotype whether paired with an identical allele or a different allele.

Recessive Allele

An allele that produces its characteristic phenotype only when its paired allele is identical.

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles of a particular gene.

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles of a particular gene.

Genotype

The genetic constitution of an individual organism.

Phenotype

The set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Non-Mendelian Inheritance

Any pattern of inheritance in which traits do not segregate in accordance with Mendel's laws.

Codominance

A relationship between two versions of a gene. Individuals receive one version of a gene, called an allele, from each parent. If the alleles are different, the dominant allele will be expressed, while the effect of the other allele, called recessive, is masked.

Incomplete Dominance

A form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely expressed over its paired allele. This results in a third phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the phenotypes of both alleles.

Polygenic Inheritance

Occurs when one characteristic is controlled by two or more genes. Often the genes are large in quantity but small in effect.

Pleiotropy

Occurs when one gene influences two or more seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits.

Non-disjunction

The failure of one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally during nuclear division, usually resulting in an abnormal distribution of chromosomes in the daughter nuclei.

Gene Linkage

The tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together during the meiosis phase of sexual reproduction.

Sex-linked Genes

A trait associated with a gene that is carried only by the male (X) or female (Y) parent. 72. Molecular Basis of inheritance.

Biotechnology

the exploitation of biological processes for industrial and other purposes, especially the genetic manipulation of microorganisms for the production of antibiotics, hormones, etc.

Natural Selection

The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Microevolution

evolutionary change within a species or small group of organisms, especially over a short period.

Macroevolution

Major evolutionary change. The term applies mainly to the evolution of whole taxonomic groups over long periods of time.

Allopatric Speciation

Occurs when biological populations of the same species become isolated from each other to an extent that prevents or interferes with genetic interchange.

Sympatric Speciation

Evolution of a new species from a surviving ancestral species while both continue to inhabit the same geographic region.

Abiotic Synthesis

The formation of organic compounds from inorganic substances through non-biological processes.

Biome

A large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat, e.g., forest or tundra.

Primary Succession

Ecological succession that begins in essentially lifeless areas, such as regions in which there is no soil or where the soil is incapable of sustaining life.

Secondary Succession

The series of community changes which take place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat.