AP Psych Unit 1 Part 1 Flashcards

Nature versus nurture

Debate between psychologists about whether human traits are present at birth or developed with experience

Natural selection

Principle that inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in an environment will (in competition with other variations of the same trait) most likely be passed on to future generations

Evolutionary psychology

Set of psychological adaptations that were made in order for our ancestors to survive their environment - adaptations are now hardwired into human genome through natural selection process

Nervous system

Body’s speedy electrochemical communication network consisting of all the nerve cells of peripheral + central nervous systems

Sensory neurons (afferent)

Carry messages from body’s tissues + sensory receptors inward to brain + spinal cord for processing

Motor neurons (efferent)

Carry instructions from CNS out to body’s muscles + glands

Interneurons

Found only in brain + spinal cord
Transfer signals between sensory + motor neurons
“Middle man”

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain + spinal cord
Body’s decision maker

Reflex (how does it happen?)

Step 1: Sense receptors in skin send signals up through spinal cord via sensory (afferent) neurons
Step 2: Interneurons in spinal cord receive information from sensory neurons and send signals back through motor neurons
Step 3: Motor (efferent) neurons connect to muscles in body + direct movement

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Responsible for gatheyring info + for transmitting CNS decisions to other body parts
Made up of sensory + motor neurons

Somatic nervous system

Enables voluntary control of skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system

Controls our glands + internal organ muscles
Influences functions like glandular activity, heartbeat, and digestion
Autonomic sounds like automatic (we do it without thinking about it)

Sympathetic Nervous System (arousing)

Arouses + expands energy
“Fight or flight”
If something alarms/challenges you, it will acclerate heartbeat, raise blood pressure (BP), slow digestion, raise blood sugar, and cool you down with sweating

Parasympathetic nervous system (calming)

When calming you down, PNS conserves energy
Reverses effects of SNS - “Rest and digest”

Neuron

Nerve cell that is the basic building block of nervous system

Cell body

Part of neuron that contains nucleus
Is cell’s life support center

Dendrites

Often bushy + branching extensions that receive + integrate messages
Conducts impulses through cell body

Axon

Long part of neuron that passes messages through ending branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Terminal branches

Part of axon that is at the end and branches out to form junctions with other cells
Also called axon terminals

Myelin sheath

Fatty tissue layer that encases axons of some neurons in segments

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

Condition caused by deterioration of myelin sheath

Action potential

Neural impulse; brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Resting potential

Positive outside and negative inside state
Fluid outside of an axon has mostly positively charged ions
Fluid inside a resting axon has mostly negatively charge

Refractory period

More actional potentials cannot occur until axon returns to its resting states 

Also called an absolute refractory phase

Excitatory signals

Signals that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing (ex: pushing a gas pedal)

Inhibitory signals

Signals that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing (ex: hitting the brakes)

Threshold

The minimum level of intensity that the number of excitatory signals has to be above for a neuron to fire

All-or-none response

Neural firing either happens or it doesn’t

Synapse

Junction between axon tip of sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of receiving neuron

Synaptic gap

Tiny gap at synapse, also called synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that travel across the gaps between neurons

Reuptake

Neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

SSRIs

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
Can be used to partially prevent serotonin reuptake and is used in many antidepressants

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Function: Enables muscle action, learning, and memory
Malfunctions: With Alzheimer’s, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate

Dopamine

Functions: Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion
Malfunctions: Oversupply linked to schizophrenia, undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson’s

Serotonin

Functions: Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
Malfunctions: Undersupply linked to depression

Norepinephrine

Functions: Helps control alertness + arousal
Malfunctions: Undersupply can depress mood

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Functions: Major inhibitory neurotransmitter
Malfunctions: Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

Glutamate

Functions: Major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
Malfunctions: Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures

Endorphins

Functions: Neurotransmitters tht influence perception of pain or pleasure
Malfunctions: Oversupply with opioid drugs can suppress the body’s natural endorphin supply

Substance P

Functions: Involved in pain perception and immune response
Malfunctions: Oversupply can lead to chronic pain

Agonists

Drug molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action
Some agonists can block reuptake in the synapse

Antagonists

Drug molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

Endocrine system

Body’s “slow” chemical communication system
Set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Hormones move through bloodstream + secretion is slower

Pitutary gland (endocrine system)

Most influential gland that regulates growth + controls other endocrine glands
Releases growth hormones (stimulates physical development)

Leptin

Singals to hypothalamus that the body has enough fat stored to function normally
High levels = decreased appetite
Low levels = increased appetite

Ghrelin

Stimulates appetite, increases food intake, and promotes fat storage

Melatonin

Produced at night or in response to darkness to regulate sleep + wake cycles

Psychoactive drugs

Chemical substances that alter the brain, causing changes in perceptions + moods

Substance Use Disorder

Disorder characterized by continued substance use despite significant life disruptions (ex: being unable to regulate use of the substance, continuing use despite social problems, hazards, and experiences withdrawals when attempting to end use)

Addiction

The most severe form of substance use disorder

Tolerance

Diminishing effect of a drug with regular use of the same dose
User is required to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the same effect

Withdrawal

Discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior
Once in the grip of addiction, people want the drug more than they like the drug

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions (ex: alcohol, bariturates (tranquilizers), opiates)

Alcohol

Depressant that slows brain activity that controls judgement + inhibitions

Expectancy effects

Expecttations that the effects of alcohol can be exaggerated by how one expects to feel after drinking

Barbiturates

Drugs that depress CNS activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory + judgment (tranquilizers)

Opioids

Opium and its derivatives that temporarily lessen pain and anxiety (ex: heroin, methadone, codein, oxycontine, vicodin, morphine, and fentanyl)

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions (ex: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, ecstasy)

Nicotine

Stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug found in tobacco

Cocaine

Powerful and addictive stimulant derived from coca plant
Temporarily increases alertness and euphoria

Methamphetamine (meth)

Triggers release of dopamine, stimulating brain cells that enhance energy and mood, leading to ~8 hours of heightened energy and euphoria

Ecstasy (MDMA)

Synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen, aka Molly
Amphetamine deriative that triggers dopamine release, but releases stored serotonin and blocks its reuptake, so there’s a 3-4 hour high of euphoria and social intimacy

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input (ex: LSD, MDMA, marijuana)

Hallucinations

Distorted perceptions and sensory images in absence of sensory input

LSD

Powerful hallucinogenic drug, aka acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)
Emotions caused from trip range from euphoria to detachment to panic
Users’ mood and expectations influence emotional experience, but the perceptual distortions and hallucinations have some commonalities

Marijuana 

Usually classified as mild hallucinogen due to amplification of sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells
Relaxes, disinhibits, and can produce euphoric highs

Neuroplasticity

Brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience (ex: pianists who have larger than usual auditory cortex areas, helping them process sound)

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface
Waves are recorded by electrodes placed on scalp
Researchers give participant stimulus and then a computer filters out brain activity related to stimulus
Indicates brain functioning

MEG (Magnetoencephalography)

Brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity
As participants complete activities, the neurons create electrical pulses, which then create magnetic fields that can be measured
Indicates brain functioning

CT (Computed Tomography) Scan

Series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by a computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure
Also called a CAT scan
Shows structure of brain

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan

Visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
Indicates brain functioning

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue
Shows brain anatomy and can reveal enlarged ventricles (fluid filled brain areas), which could indicate a potential psychological disorder
Shows structure of brain

fMRI (Functional MRI)

Technique for revealing blood flow, and therefore, brain activity, by comparing successive MRI scans)
Shows brain function as well as structure

Hindbrain

Contains brainstem structures that direct essential survival functions (medulla, pons and cerebellum control breathing, sleeping, arousal, coordination, and balance)

Midbrain

Connects hindbrain with the forebrain and controls some movements and transmits information that enables seeing and hearing
On top of brainstem

Forebrain

Manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities
Structures are cerebral cotrx, thalamus, and hypothalamus

Brainstem

Oldest part of the brain at central core, begins where spinal cord swells as it enters the skull
Responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

Base of brainstem
Controls heartbeat and breathing

Pons

Sits just above the medulla in brainstem
Helps coordinate movement and controls sleep

Thalamus

Forebrain’s sensory control center
Located on top of brainstem
Directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex and transmits replies to cerebellum and medulla

Reticular formation

Nerve network that ttravels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays important role in controllng arousal 
Controlled by reticular activating system
Responsible for multitasking

Cerebellum

Functions including processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance,  and enablingnonverbal learning and memory
Extends from rear of brainstem and is part of hindbrain
With assistance from pons, cerebellum also coordinates voluntary movement

Limbic system

Neural system located mostly in forebrain, below cerebral hemispheres
Contains amygdala, thalamus, pituitary gland, hypothalamus, and the hippocampus

Associated with emotions and drives

Amygdala

Two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system
Linked to emotion, fear, and aggression
AHHHHHHH-mygdala

Hypothalamus

Neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus
Directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) that helps maintain homeostastis
Helps govern endocrine system via pituitary gland
Linked with emotion and reward

Reward centers

Stimulation of these centers feels good, so brain can release dopamine

Hippocampus

Neural center located in limbic system that helps process memories of facts and events for storage

Cerebrum

Two cerebral hemispheres that help with perceiving, thinking, and speaking

Cerebral cortex

Covers the cerebrum and is a thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells
Ultimate control and information processing center

Frontal lobes

Portion of cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead
Enables linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher order thinking, and executive functioning (ex: making plans and judgments)

Temporal lobes

Portion of cerebral cortex lying roughly above ears
Includes auditory areas that each receive information primarily from opposite ear
Also enables language processing

Parietal lobes

Portion of cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear
Receives sensory input for touch and body position

Occipital lobes

Portion of cerebral cortex lying at back of the head
Includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Motor cortex

Area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control voluntary movements

Somatosensory cortex

Area at the front of parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Right behind motor cortex

Visual cortex

Receives info from the eyes in occipital lobe
If stimulated, you may see flashes of light or color

Auditory cortex

Receives info from ears in temporal lobe
If stimulated in your auditory cortex, you may hear a sound

Association areas

Areas of cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor of sensory functions
Largely involved in higher mental functions (ex: learning, remembering, thinking, speaking)
Responsible for many tasks that make us human

Prefrontal cortex

Association area in the forward parts of the frontal lobe
Enables judgment, planning, social interactions, and processing of new memories