PSYCH1101 Final Review

How does the peripheral nervous system differ from the central nervous system?

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, processing and integrating information. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the CNS to the rest of the body, transmitting sensory and motor signals.

Why is replicability important in science?

It ensures results are consistent and not due to chance, increasing the reliability of findings.

What is publication bias?

The tendency to publish positive or significant results over null or negative findings, which can distort scientific understanding.

What is scientific fraud?

Deliberate falsification or fabrication of data, undermining the integrity of scientific research.

How does the peripheral nervous system differ from the central nervous system?

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, processing and integrating information. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the CNS to the rest of the body, transmitting sensory and motor signals.

What is the difference between localization and plasticity in brain function?

Localization refers to specific brain areas responsible for particular functions, while plasticity is the brain's ability to adapt and reorganize itself.

Name basic brain structures associated with psychological functioning.

• Subdivisions:

  • Occipital lobe: visual processing

  • Temporal lobe: auditory processing, memory, and multisensory integration

  • Parietal lobe: somatosensory processing and spatial attention

  • Frontal lobe: motor planning, decision-making, and language production

• Subcortical structures:

  • Basal ganglia: control voluntary movements

  • Amygdala: emotion processing

  • Hippocampus: memory function

What are common imaging methods used to study the brain?

• CT Scans: 3D brain imaging using X-rays (moderate spatial, poor temporal)

• CAT scans: structural imaging using X-rays.

• fMRI: measures blood flow to show brain activity. (excellent spatial, poor temporal)

• MRI: high-resolution brain imaging using magnetic fields (best spatial, no temporal)

• PET scans: detects radioactive tracers to map brain function (good spatial, but poor temporal)

• EEG: Records electrical activity from the scalp (excellent temporal, poor spatial)

• Diffuse Optical Imaging (DOI): Uses infrared light to measure brain activity (potential for high on both depending on set up)

What are the primary parts of a neuron?

• Axon: transmits signals away from the cell body.

• Dendrites: receive signals from other neurons.

• Cell body (soma): houses the nucleus and maintains cell function.

What are primary neurotransmitters and their functions?

• Endorphins: Pleasure and relief

• Dopamine: reward and motivation. Increased by cocaine.

• Serotonin: mood regulation, sleep, impulsivity, aggression, appetite

• GABA: inhibitory, reduces neural excitability.

• Acetylcholine: muscle movement and memory.
  Drugs can increase or decrease neurotransmitter activity (e.g., SSRIs increase serotonin levels).

• Norepinephrine: eating habits, alertness, fight or flight

What is the Just Noticeable Difference (JND)?

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

What is transduction in sensation?

The process of converting physical stimuli (e.g., light, sound) into neural signals.

How do binocular and monocular depth cues differ?

• Binocular cues: require both eyes (e.g., retinal disparity).

• Monocular cues: use one eye (e.g., size, linear perspective).

What are Gestalt principles of object perception?

1. Law of Similarity: The law of similarity states that similar things tend to appear grouped together. Grouping can occur in both auditory and visual stimuli.

2. Common Fate: Elements moving in the same direction or at the same rate are perceived as part of the same group

3. Law of Proximity: things that are close together seem more related than things that are spaced farther apart. Put another way, when objects are close to each other, we also tend to group them together

4. Law of Continuity: holds that points that are connected by straight or curving lines are seen in a way that follows the smoothest path. In other words, elements in a line or curve seem more related to one another than those positioned randomly

5. Law of Closure: we perceive elements as belonging to the same group if they seem to complete some entity. Our brains often ignore contradictory information and fill in gaps in information. 

6. Law of Common Region: when elements are located in the same closed region, we perceive them as belonging to the same group.

Provide examples of visual illusions.

- Müller-Lyer illusion: lines with arrowheads appear different lengths.

• Ames room: distorted perception of size and space.

What are the stages of sleep and their associated brain waves?

• Stage 1: Theta waves (light sleep).

• Stage 2: Sleep spindles and K-complexes.

• Stage 3/4: Delta waves (deep sleep).

• REM: Beta waves (dreaming).

What happens during REM sleep?

Intense brain activity, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis.

What are primary theories about why we sleep?

• Restorative theory: body and brain repair.

• Energy saving: something about calories, not a lot of evidence

• Memory consolidation: aids learning

Name common sleep disorders.

• Narcolepsy: sudden sleep attacks.

• Insomnia: difficulty falling/staying asleep.

• Night terrors: intense fear during deep sleep.

Describe Freud's three-part structure of the mind.

• Id: primal desires.

• Ego: reality-based mediator.

• Superego: moral conscience

What are Freud's stages of psychosexual development?

• Oral (0-1): focus on mouth.

• Anal (1-3): focus on control.

• Phallic (3-6): Oedipus/Electra complex.

• Latency (6-12): dormant sexual feelings.

• Genital (12+): mature sexuality.

What are the stages of memory?

- Encoding: processing information for storage.

• Storage: maintaining information over time.

• Retrieval: accessing stored information.

What happens in a dichotic listening task?

Participants hear different messages in each ear and are asked to focus on one, testing selective attention.

What is inattentional blindness?

Failure to notice a visible object because attention is focused elsewhere.

What are the primacy and recency effects?

Better memory for items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list.

What is encoding specificity?

Memory is better when the context during retrieval matches the context during encoding (e.g., the Scuba Study).

What are the three main types of learning?

• Habituation: decreased response to repeated stimuli.

• Classical conditioning: association between stimuli (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs).

• Operant conditioning: behavior shaped by consequences.

Identify the UCS, CS, UCR, and CR in classical conditioning.

- UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): naturally triggers a response.

• CS (Conditioned Stimulus): neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the UCS.

• UCR (Unconditioned Response): natural response to UCS.

• CR (Conditioned Response): learned response to CS.

What is spontaneous recovery?

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.

What is stimulus generalization?

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

What is the Garcia Effect?

Aversion to a taste after it is paired with nausea, showing biological predispositions in learning.

What are display rules?

Social norms for expressing emotions.

What are the primary functions of emotions?

• Communication: signal feelings.

• Motivation: drive action.

• Social bonding: strengthen relationships.

What evidence supports the universality of emotions?

Similar facial expressions across cultures and research by Ekman on basic emotions.

What is emotional valuation?

The importance cultures place on specific emotional states (e.g., Eastern cultures value calm, Western cultures value excitement).

What is the structure of the Prisoner’s Dilemma?

A game where individuals choose to cooperate or defect, with outcomes dependent on mutual or individual choices.

What is free riding?

Benefiting from group resources without contributing.

What is diffusion of responsibility?

Reduced accountability when responsibility is shared among a group.

What is empathy, and how is it tested in psychopaths?

Empathy is understanding others' feelings; psychopaths show reduced amygdala responses to distress cues.

What are Piaget’s stages of sensorimotor development and their associated ages?

• Sensorimotor (0-2): object permanence develops.

• Preoperational (2-7): symbolic thinking; struggles with conservation.

• Concrete operational (7-12): logical thinking about tangible objects.

• Formal operational (12+): abstract reasoning.

What is object permanence?

Understanding that objects exist even when not visible.

What are conservation problems?

Challenges in understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

What are challenges to Piaget’s theory?

Underestimation of children's abilities and lack of emphasis on cultural factors.

What is bounded rationality?

The idea that humans make decisions within cognitive and environmental limits.

How do heuristics relate to biases?

Heuristics simplify decisions but can lead to biases (e.g., anchoring and framing).

What are System 1 and System 2 thinking?

• System 1: fast, intuitive.

• System 2: slow, analytical.

What is the gambler’s fallacy?

Belief that future probabilities are influenced by past events in independent trials.

What is confirmation bias?

Tendency to seek information that supports existing beliefs.

What does “g” refer to in intelligence theory?

General intelligence, underlying performance across diverse tasks.

What is the Flynn effect?

The rise in average IQ scores over time due to factors like education and nutrition.

How heritable is IQ?

Heritability estimates range from 50%-80%, varying by age and environment.

What improves IQ in children?

• Preschool education for low-income families.

• Interactive reading.

• Nutritional supplementation (e.g., iodine).

What are the Big Five personality traits?

• Openness: creativity and curiosity.

• Conscientiousness: organization and discipline.

• Extraversion: sociability and energy.

• Agreeableness: cooperation and trust.

• Neuroticism: emotional instability.

What is the lexical hypothesis?

The idea that personality traits can be identified through language.

What are projective vs. objective tests?

• Projective: interpret ambiguous stimuli (e.g., Rorschach).

• Objective: standardized questionnaires (e.g., Big Five Inventory).

What was the Milgram experiment?

A study on obedience, showing people comply with authority even against their morals.

What is the Dunning-Kruger effect?

People with low ability overestimate their competence.

What are implicit vs. explicit attitudes?

• Implicit: unconscious biases.

• Explicit: consciously held beliefs.

What are benefits of laughter?

Immune System, Stress reduction, improved mood, and social bonding.

What are the components of happiness?

• Affective: emotional well-being.

• Cognitive: life satisfaction.

How does money relate to happiness?

Increases happiness up to a certain income level; experiences often bring more joy than material goods.

What strategies improve happiness?

Gratitude, social connections, spending on others, and mindfulness.

What is hedonic adaptation?

Tendency to return to a baseline level of happiness after positive or negative events