Biology: Reproduction and Genetic Material Review

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering basic reproduction, cell replication, polypeptide synthesis, genetic variability, and the causes and control of infectious diseases as detailed in the lecture transcript.

Sexual reproduction

A process involving two parents producing unique offspring through the union of male and female gametes ($sperm$ and $ova$) into a zygote.

External fertilisation

The union of male and female gametes ($sperm$ and $ova$) outside the parental body in the external environment, common in species like salmon.

Internal fertilisation

The union of gametes inside the female reproductive tract, a process that can occur on dry land and offers protection from predation.

Viviparous

A type of internal fertilisation and development where the embryo develops inside the mother's body, as seen in humans.

Oviparous

A method where internal fertilisation occurs, but eggs are deposited and hatch externally, such as in birds and reptiles.

Ovi-viviparous

A process involving internal fertilisation and internal egg development, where live young then hatch externally, as seen in sharks.

Binary fission

A form of asexual reproduction in which a parent organism duplicates its genetic material and divides into two genetically identical daughter cells of equal size.

Budding

An asexual process where a small outgrowth forms on the parent via mitotic division, eventually breaking off to mature independently.

Fragmentation

A method of asexual reproduction where a piece of the parent organism breaks off and develops into a new genetically identical individual.

Parthenogenesis

A form of reproduction where a female organism produces an egg that develops into an embryo without fertilisation.

Hermaphrodites

Organisms possessing both male and female reproductive organs, which may undergo self-fertilisation.

Stamen

The male reproductive structure of an angiosperm, composed of the filament and the anther.

Carpel

The female reproductive structure of an angiosperm, containing the stigma, style, and ovary.

Sucker

A form of asexual reproduction in plants where a new growth develops directly from the rootstock of the parent.

Rhizome

Underground stems that branch out to form suckers which then develop new shoots and roots.

Tuber

Swollen segments of underground stems featuring buds ($eyes$) that can grow into new plants, such as a potato.

Plasmogamy

The first stage of sexual spore production in fungi where haploid cells from two different mycelia fuse into a heterokaryotic cell.

Karyogamy

The stage in fungal sexual reproduction where the nuclei of different mycelia fuse to form a diploid ($2n$) zygote.

Morula

A ball of $16-32$ blastomeres formed through several cleavage stages by $Day\,4$ of development.

Blastocyst

A hollow sphere formed by $Day\,5$ consisting of an outer layer of trophoblasts and an inner embryoblast.

hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)

A hormone secreted by embryonic tissue that maintains the corpus luteum for the first $10$ weeks of pregnancy.

Prostaglandins

Hormones released by the uterine wall responsible for initiating contractions and making the uterus more receptive to oxytocin.

Oxytocin

A hormone regulated by a positive feedback loop that coordinates smooth muscle contractions and the softening of the cervix during birth.

GnRH (Gonadatropin-releasing Hormone)

A hormone that controls the production and secretion of Follicle Stimulating Hormone ($FSH$) and Luteinising Hormone ($LH$).

Micropropagation

A technique used to produce genetically identical plant clones from tissue cultures using undifferentiated meristematic cells.

Mitosis

A type of cell division occurring in somatic cells that produces two identical daughter cells for growth and repair.

Meiosis

A specialized cell division in primordial germ cells that produces four unique haploid ($n$) daughter cells.

Nucleotide

The subunit of DNA consisting of a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases.

DNA Helicase

The enzyme responsible for 'unzipping' double-stranded DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds between base pairs.

DNA Polymerase

An enzyme that synthesises complementary DNA strands in the $5'$ to $3'$ direction during replication.

Okazaki fragments

Small sections of DNA synthesised discontinuously on the lagging strand ($3'$ to $5'$) during replication.

Transcription

The conversion of DNA into messenger RNA ($mRNA$) within the nucleus.

Translation

The process where ribosomes read $mRNA$ and use transfer RNA ($tRNA$) to assemble an amino acid sequence.

Introns

Non-coding regions within a gene that are removed during the splicing process by a spliceosome.

Exons

Coding nucleotide sequences that remain in mature-mRNA to be used for protein synthesis.

Codon

A group of three bases in $mRNA$ that codes for one specific amino acid.

Crossing over

The exchange of alleles between non-sister chromatids on homologous chromosomes during meiosis.

Codominance

A genetic deviation where the heterozygote expresses both allele phenotypes simultaneously, such as roan cows.

Incomplete dominance

A genetic inheritance pattern where the heterozygote displays a blend of two alleles, as seen in snapdragon flowers.

SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism)

A point mutation occurring in more than $1\%$ of the population, serving as a genetic marker.

Haplotype

A specific combination of $SNPs$ that an individual possesses at various loci across their genome.

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

An artificial method of DNA replication involving denaturation at $95^\circ C$, annealing at $55^\circ C$, and elongation at $72^\circ C$.

Sanger Method

A laboratory technique utilizing chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides to determine the exact nucleotide sequence of DNA.

STRs (Short Tandem Repeats)

Repeating elements found in introns used in DNA profiling to identify and compare individuals.

Silent mutation

A single nucleotide substitution that results in no change to the amino acid sequence of a protein.

Missense mutation

A point mutation where a single nucleotide substitution results in the change of one amino acid in the sequence.

Nonsense mutation

A substitution mutation that introduces an early stop codon, shortening the resulting polypeptide.

Aneuploidy

A numerical chromosomal mutation where the number of chromosomes in a homologous pair is unbalanced, such as in Trisomy-21.

Polyploidy

A variation in the number of sets of chromosomes, which can be autopolyploidy or allopolyploidy.

Genetic drift

A change in allele frequency in a small population due to random chance, including the bottleneck and founder effects.

SCNT (Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer)

A method of cloning where a somatic cell nucleus is fused with an enucleated egg to produce a genetically identical animal.

Prions

Non-cellular infectious particles consisting of misfolded proteins, such as those causing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.

Bacteria

Prokaryotic, unicellular microorganisms that cause disease by releasing toxins or forming biofilms.

Epidemic

A rapid and widespread outbreak of an infectious disease within a specific geographic region.

Pandemic

An epidemic that has spread to multiple geographic regions across the world.

Robert Koch

A microbiologist who developed four postulates to establish a causative relationship between a specific microbe and a disease.

Louis Pasteur

A chemist who disproved the theory of spontaneous generation through his swan neck flask experiment.

Antigenic drift

The accumulation of small mutations in a virus genome over time that eventually makes the antigens unrecognizable to the immune system.

Antigenic shift

A process where different strains of a virus infect the same cell and mix genomes, creating a vastly different daughter virus.

Passive immunity

Short-term protection provided by the transfer of antibodies produced by another organism, such as via the placenta or breast milk.

Active immunity

Protection provided by an individual's own adaptive immune response, leading to the creation of memory $B$ and $T$ cells.

Herd immunity

Protection of unvaccinated individuals in a community when a large enough proportion of the population is immune to a disease.

Antivirals

Drugs like Tamiflu that slow viral infections by inhibiting enzymes or preventing the virus from entering cells.

Antibiotic resistance

The ability of bacteria to survive antibiotic exposure due to pre-existing genetic variation and selection pressure.

Incidence

The number of new cases of a disease in a population over a specific time period.

Prevalence

The total number of active cases of a disease in a population at a particular point in time.

ICIPR (Indigenous Cultural and Intellectual Property Rights)

Rights designed to protect Aboriginal communities from exploitation and preserve their traditions regarding biological materials like smoke bush.