PSYC Exam 2

change blindness

we are bad at detecting changes if we don’t know where to look or where to direct our attention

Selective attention

selecting which stimuli to attend to and to ignore

• Ex: talking to one person at a party - ignoring everyone else and paying attention/focuses on the conversation with that person

Door study

• One person would ask a stranger for directions

• A door/painting interrupts the conversation and as it goes past, that person switches out with another

• the stranger still answers as if its the same person

• they didn’t notice the change

Attention

involves multiple mechanisms (mainly frontal lobe)

• will direct additional blood flow to relevant areas —> leading to higher activity in these areas to accommodate additional processing

RCBF and aging

• in aging individuals (as early as 30) PET scans show rCBF significantly decreases to frontal cortices —> this leads to decrease in memory capability, attention, bodily function control

• blood flow to frontal cortex decreases as we age

• first few years of age experience a spike of blood flow to these areas —> to compensate for demand for attention, learning, metabolism (“as children, we are a sponge”)

“if we can’t pay attention properly, we cannot comprehend properly”

ADHD and blood flow

• less blood flow to frontal lobe

• reduced frontal lobe and temporal cortices size

• medications like Guanfacine (treats high BP by lowering HR) can be used to allow better blood flow

• other medications increase NE and DA transmission

cocktail party effect

while in a noisy environment, we can still attend to one conversation

t/f we are very good at selectively attending to only the information that is currently relevant

true

• we can miss extremely salient events that happen right in front of our eyes

t/f the same processing is used to information that is attended and unattended

false

• different processing happens for attended information than unattended

inattentional blindness

if we attend to one thing we often miss others especially if unexpected

• people’s intuition is very wrong - we believe we see everything especially unexpected (opposite of what’s true)

inattentional blindness - radiologists

• 24/25 radiologists did not find the hidden gorilla embedded in xray scans

• expertise does not overcome inattentional blindness in most cases

• you may miss things that are actually there (type II error)

dividing attention

1. blood flow direction is a fixed amount, when doing multiple tasks/divide attention = less blood flow directed to each task

   • the more we try to multi-task, the less effective we are at doing that task

2. not all tasks are equal/as complex

   • tasks differ in amount of attention needed

   • as we practice and get more efficient, the less attention and blood flow we will need

t/f the more you divide you attention the longer it takes to process any of your attention modalities

true

• as you drive and talk on the phone you have a longer reaction time

why would have a physical passenger make you a better drive

• the passenger is also exposed to the same stimuli and can help reaction

• social pressure may make you feel more responsible or pay more attention

limits of attention

• tracking speed: how fast are the attended objects moving or how fast your eyes can keep up (faster = more difficult to process)

• capacity: number of objects you can process at the same time

• crowding: the closer objects are to one another, the harder it is to identify them (how dense is the information)

relationship between blood flow and measuring attention

positive correlation

• as blood flow increases, attention increases

reaction time

time it takes to react

• SHORT reaction time = GOOD

relation between reaction time and task complexity

positive correlation

• the more complex the task, the longer the reaction time

Information in sensory memory last __ seconds

3

Information in short term memory last __ seconds

15-20 if not rehearsed

Information in long term memory lasts

virtually unlimited, if we don’t forget it

Memory flow chart

Sensory memory

• brief impression from senses

• unless attention is devoted to an aspect of the scene, the sensory memory will decay

short term memory

• acoustic, visual, and semantic coding (temporary storage)

• disappears after 15-20 seconds if not rehearsed or coded

• can be passed/coded into long term memory

long term memory

encoding of procedural and declarative memories

• more important memories are encoded more quickly

• Explicit/conscious memory —> episodic (experiences) vs semantic (facts, concepts) memory

• Implicit/unconscious memory —> procedural memory (skills, tasks)

active manipulation

often referred to as working memory

• components of short term memory

• actively engaging short term memory

Ex: remembering numbers

• constantly saying the number to remember them is active manipulation

baddeley’s theory of working memory

emphasizes how attention and conscious processing mediate the memory encoding

• working memory can involve active manipulation of multiple sensory modalities simultaneously

components: central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buff, phonological loop, long term memory

Ex: we can read while listening to music

Central executive - Baddeley’s theory of working memory

directs our attention while ALSO coordinating the subsidiary systems

visuospatial sketchad - Baddeley’s theory of working memory

• being able to imagine/visualize things at different angles or recall color

• “mental screenshot”

• visualizing important stuff and ignoring everything else that’s in your visual field

episodic buffer - Baddeley’s theory of working memory

connecting information current experience to past memories

• connecting phonological and visual elements into a single cohesive memory

Phonological loop - Baddeley’s theory of working memory

utilizes rehearsal to maintain things into short term memory

Memory capacity compare to non humans - chimpanzees

• they have a better working memory

• important for them to process multiple things at once in a short amount of time

Relationship between accessing memories and long term memory

The more you access a memory = the more they restructure = the more likely they’ll encode into long term memory

implicit memory

memories are accessed and utilized unconsciously

• long term memory

• procedural memory: how to execute procedures to carry out tasks automatically

• can occur together with explicit memory

explicit memory

conscious recollection

• semantic memory: general facts and knowledge about our world

• episodic memory: memory for specific events that have happened to us

episodic and semantic memory

can shift from episodic to semantic over time (development of phobias due to traumatic incident)

• Ex: petting a cat then getting mauled (episodic) —> over time lead to phobia of cats (semantic)

Mechanisms of memory

• long term potentiation: long lasting increase in synaptic efficacy following repeated and frequent activation between neurons

• neurons that fire together, wire together

• repeated simultaneous activation = postsynaptic cell to become more sensitive, and make synapse stronger and more likely to be activated ion in the future

synaptic plasticity change can

• neurotransmitter released

• number of postsynaptic receptors available

results in synaptic strength

Neuronal ensembles

group of neurons correlated with spontaneous and evoked activity

• memory encoding and retrieval activate these

t/f: experiences and memories change the connection between neurons, altering the ensembles over time

true

dementia

• decline in mental ability severe enough to interfere with daily life

• alzheimer’s is a type of dementia

Alzheimer’s

• plaques deposit on brain and tangled proteins cause affected neurons

  • sleep may play into development of plaques and tangles (lack of sleep = bad)

• affects hippocampus first before speading

• spreading = neuronal cell death —> leads to memory loss, disorientation, emotional instability

Priming

facilitation of responding that occurs as a result of the presentation of a semantically or phonologically related word

Ex: saying nurse will lead to doctor

absent mindedness - forgetting

inability to properly encode the information we wish to remember

• divided attention = cannot rehearse information = decay

blocking - forgetting

inability to properly retrieve information that is still stores in brain

• can be encumbered by all the associations we have and are left with partial recall

• relates to crowding in attention

transience

details of memories deterioriate over time

• can recall last night’s dinner in detail but sunday may not have as much detail

trace decay theory

• explains WHY memories fade over time

• “use it or lose it”

• all memories are slowly fading

Intrusion error - memory error

• brain will recreate words that associated with the group even if it was not in the group

  • Ex: “bed, rest, awake, tired, dream, snooze” —> sleep is NOT included but people may include it

• type 1 error: signal not there but response is that it is

source monitoring - memory error

ability to link a given memory to its origin

• limited to ability to remember context of the memory and to what extent

• error = source misattribution: incorrectly attributes the source of a memory to a specific experience

interference - memory error

• proactive: inability to recall newly- learned information due to previously learned information and newly-learned information

  • a friend having the same number for years, then changes it —> unable to learn new number due to only remembering old one

• Retroactive: inability to recall old information due to interference with newly-learned information

  • go to a website you haven’t been to in years —> try recent passwords but can’t remember old passwords

flashbulb memories

memory for circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged important events

do flashbulb memories decay at the same rate as regular memories

yes

• you believe you remember exactly where you were and what happened for flashbulb memories because confidence in recall STAYS constant

• over time details can be lacking like regular memory

• other memories will have a decreasing recall confidence

Memory improvement

• recitation

• taking breaks

• mnemonics

• self-referencing: relate it to yourself

context when learning - recall example

• state of mind matters during priming memories

• people are better at recall when they’re sober if they learned it sober

• people are better at recall when they’re drunk if they learned it drunk

Importance of context when learning graph

cognition

ability to process knowledge, understand concepts, and solve problems

• involves ability to plan for future/talk about past, imagine abstract concepts, assimilate new information, and communicate with others

• ability to talk about time besides the present effectively and imagine abstract images makes human cognition unqiue

where is logic and reasoning activated in the brain

frontal lobe

• as the brain develops so does logic and reasoning ability

schizophrenia

• improper development of the frontal lobe (one of the reasons)

• breakdown in thought, emtoion, and behavior relationship

• leads to faulty perception, inappropriate feelings and actions, withdrawal from reality, personal relationships into fantasy and delusion

Human problem-solving

we emply different tactics based on the type and complexity of the problem

common tactics:

• algorithmns

• heuristics

• trial and error

• insight

algorithms

step by step procedure that guides individuals through complex situations ensuring a logical and consistent approach to decsion making

• tend to memorize algorithm

• may not be efficient, in cases like CPR it IS ultilized to optimize success but may not work for EVERY patient

heurisitic

mental shortcut that allow people to quickly make judgement and solve problems

ex: middle aged patient comes to the er with chest pain

• chest pain = symptom of heart attack

• assess demographics and may suspect a heart attack took place

trial and error

trying a number of different solutions and ruling out that those don’t work

• good if you have a limited number of options available

• can be frustrating due to how time consuming it is

Ex: taking different medications for pain and trying to find one that works

insight

refers to common human experience of suddenly understanding a previously incomprehensible problem or concept

• 2 step process: don’t know —> aha moment

• brief superior temporal gyrus activation before connection is made —> this structure is vital for making connections

bias and hueristics

• heurisitics uses top down processing to process sensory input/infer since we cannot process it all

• leads to potential bias —> if it happened to me it must happen to everyone else

  • can lead to errors in judgement or thinking due to personal experience

confirmation bias

propensity to favor evidence that confirms our ideas while disregarding evidence that doesn’t

belief perservance

tendency to continue to believe things even after out reasons to believe them have been undermined

• means of protecting out egos

Psychological reactance

When we are told what to do or think, we perceive that as having some of our freedoms or rights taken away —> react by doing the opposite

Hindsight bias

Propensity to perceive outcomes AFTER the fact

• when reflecting, details consistent with the outcome become apparent/more important

Hindsight bias and overconfidence

Our bias becomes overconfident which is a mis-judgement of our aptitude at a certain task

• when we think back to a prior issue, our hindsight bias makes us think we er more accurate in predicting the outcome of the issue

Influence of language on cognition

Structure of language affects its speakers worldview or cognition and thus people’s perception are relative to their spoken language

Sapir-whorf hypothesis

cultures have different names for specific colors, they should perceive it differently than others

• abandoned due to lack of experimental evidence

• lead to development of cognitive behavioral therapy

cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

empathizes interaction between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

• relies on ability to utilize our internal monologue to correct maladaptive behaviors and feelings

Language development theories - nativist Chomsky

Humans are born with language acquisition device

• all language have the same structural elements

• Only operates during critical period of development (birth-12)

Language development theories - learning theory skinner

Linguistic ability is not innate but rather language is acquired through enforcement

• can’t fully account for the ability of children to produce words or sound combinations they’ve never heard before

• Ex: child learns to say the word mama because it begins with sounds like “m-“ or “ma-“

Language develop theory - interactionist theory vgotsky

Biological and social factors interact to motivate children to learn a language

• combines that we do have biological predisposition for language acquisition and that it can be mediated by social factory

• Draws upon child’s desire to communicate, motivated to learn language so they can communicate

• If a child is not properly socialized they will not develop language fully

Gene Wiley

• unfortunately trapped in her house and was not talked to or taught how to speak

• When rescued at 13, could only make infant like sounds

• Learned word, BUT could NOT communicate and articulate words (grammar)

• supports critical period hypothesis of language acquisition

Bella devyantknia

• Bella’s mother was a language tutor decided to socialize Bella and expose her to a variety of languages

• By 4, she could speak 7 languages

• By 6, she could read in all these languages

wernicke’s aphasia

say words, but no real meaning, difficulty reading

**fluent speech pattern but impaired comprehension of language

broca’s area aphasia

unable to form words properly, difficulty writing

arcuate fasciculus

• connects broca and wernicke’s area (conduction pathway)

• damage can result in conduction aphasia = fluent speech but paraphasic speech (not tested on)

  • Ex: 1, 2, 3, moose, boy, 6, 7

• dsylexia can be explained by issues with arcuate fasciculus

Dsylexia

• learning disability that affects the ability to read or interpret words, letters, and other symbols

  • many types

• posterior brain are not being activated

  • abnormalities in arcuate fasciulus

Intelligence

• ill-defined = many different theories

• Neal’s defintion: ability to formulate a number and certain quality level of inferences based on a given input

Spearman’s G

• G = general intelligence

  • intelligence can be reduced to a single number (IQ)

  • higher G score on one task —> same high score on another

• belief how you do on one cognitive task correlates to how you do on other cognitive tasks

G underlying factors

• symbol of an individual’s working memory capabilities, neural processing speed, and myelination

  • processing speed

  • attention and attentional filtering

  • working memory capacity

  • cognitive control

Fluid intelligence

• fluid reasoning

• ability to deal with new and unusual problems, identifying patterns, and problem solving

“Fluid = creativity”

Crystallized intelligence

• acquired knowledge (life experience)

  • includes verbal knowledge and expertise

“Crystal is hard, crystallized intelligence is hard facts”

Fluid and crystallized intelligence over age

• Fluid peaks at early adulthood

• crystallized increases over time (likely due to more experiences and expertise)

Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory

• Analytic intelligence: mental steps used to solve problems

• Creative intelligence: use of experience to insight

• practical intelligence: read and adapt everyday contents

Gardner’s theory

we have multiple TYPES of intelligence

Beginning of measuring intelligence

• France 1904, universal elementary education - Alfred Binet

• designed first intelligence tests

IQ Distribution

• standardized - average IQ = 100

• how you compare to the average individual in your society of the same age

Why are our IQ levels higher than our grandparents - Ted Talk

• we like in a world that goes beyond concrete fact

• historically average IQ levels were about 70

  • due to different needs at the time, no specific need for problem solving, complex thought, etc

  • humans began to perform problem solving/other higher ways of thinking - higher intelligence is not due to innate ability

• classification, logic, and taking hypothetical seriously

  • Ex: he asked his racist grandparents how would you feel if one day you were black —> responded no one wakes up black spontaneously —> could not think past the hypothetical

IQ Nowadays

wechsler adult intelligence scale

• measures a mix of fluid and crystallized intellience

  • focuses heavily on fluid

Root of intelligence

genetic similarity

Heritability of intelligence

as genetic similarity drops, similarity intelligence drops

• HOWEVER, intelligence is not relatively fixed —> environment can also lead to increases in IQ

  • especially if you started in terrible conditions

Consciousness

awareness of external events, awareness to internal sensations, and awareness of your own thoughts and emotions

• continuum

• frontal lobe and limbic system involved

• executive control allows us to make decision that will be advantageous to us in the moment and future

limbic system and consciousness

regulation of bodily states

• consciousness of our bodily states allows us to plan and seek sustenance

• access to memory allows us to efficiently forage for food

Why have consciousness

• unconscious processes like breathing, blood flow, would be too much

• awareness is important when its important to be aware to stimuli —> when unconscious processes become aware to us (ex: breathing while swimming)

Limbic system

conscious awareness of our bodily states allow us to plan

• amygdala - emotion

• thalamus - sensory processing

• hypothalamus - hunger/thirst/sleep

• hippocampus - memory

Pseudocoma

patients appear to be in coma but are conscious

• locked in syndrome