Bio Test 2

For Bio Test 2 SLSS

What are tissues?

Tissues are **groups of specialized cells that function together** to perform specialized tasks.

What are the 4 types of tissue?

\-Epithelial

\-Muscle

\-Nervous

\-Connective

What is the function of epithelial tissue?

To form a protective barrier: covers the outer surface of the body lines body cavities such as the digestive or respiratory system

* **Protection**
* Skin tissue protects underlying tissue from mechanical injury, harmful chemicals, invading bacteria and from excessive water loss
* **Secretion**
* Glands secrete enzymes, hormones & lubricating fluids
* **Absorption**
* Cells in the small intestine absorb nutrients from digested food

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What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?

**Skeletal**

* Voluntary
* Striated
* Contract to pull on bones to create movement

**Smooth**

* Involuntary
* Smooth
* Contract to facilitate movement of liquids and solids throughout the body

**Cardiac**

* Involuntary
* Smooth
* Muscles of the heart contract to move blood throughout the circulatory system

What is nervous tissue?

\-Nerve tissue can create impulses & transmit them throughout the body

\-Nerve cells receive information from inside & outside the body

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What is connective tissue and explain all the types

**The main function is to join other tissues together.**

* **Tendons & ligaments**: connect muscles to bones
* **Bones**: provide structural support
* **Cartilage**: cushioning between bones
* **Blood:**
* **Red Blood Cells: transport O2 and CO2**
* **White Blood Cells: fight off infection**
* **Platelets: form blood clots for wound healing**
* **Adipose (fat): provides cushioning and insulation**


* **Collagen**: gives strength & support to bones, muscles, skin

What are the components of the alimentary canal?

* Mouth
* Pharynx
* Esophagus
* Stomach
* Small Intestine
* Duodenum
* Jejunum
* Ileum
* Large Intestine/Colon
* Cecum
* Ascending Colon
* Transverse Colon
* Descending Colon
* Sigmoid Colon
* Rectum
* Anus

What are the accessory organs?

* Salivary glands
* Liver
* Gallbladder
* Pancreas

What is the pharynx?

The pharynx, or throat, connects the mouth to the esophagus and trachea.

What is the esophagus and how does it push food?

The esophagus is a tube of smooth muscle that connects the pharynx to the stomach. The esophagus is able to push food along because of peristaltic muscle contractions.

What is the stomach and how does an ulcer occur?

The stomach further digests food by using enzymes and acid. An ulcer occurs when the stomach acid gets through to the actual muscle.

What is the small intestine & its role?

The small intestine uses enzymes from the pancreas and bile produced in the liver to further break down nutrients. The role of the small intestine is to absorb nutrients.

What is the large intestine & its role?

Food that cannot be further digested moves from the small intestine to the colon (large intestine).

The colon absorbs water and vitamins into the bloodstream.

What is the liver?

The liver produces bile, which is a greenish-brownish fluid that aids in digesting fats (emulsification)

What is the gallbladder?

The bile is stored in the gallbladder. The bile travels through ducts from the gallbladder to the small intestine.

What is the pancreas?

The pancreas is an accessory organ that makes enzymes that goes into the small intestine and it creates insulin, which is a hormone used to regulate blood sugar levels.

How does heartburn happen?

Heartburn is a burning sensation in the chest that is caused by the regurgitation of acid from the stomach into the esophagus.

What are goblet cells?

Goblet cells are specialized epithelial cells found in the respiratory and digestive systems. They produce and secrete mucus.

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Goblet cells are primarily found in the respiratory tract, including the lining of the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. They are also present in the digestive system, particularly in the epithelial lining of the intestines

What are ciliated cells?

Ciliated cells are epithelial cells that possess hair-like structures called cilia on their surface. They are found in the respiratory tract, including the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, where their coordinated movement helps propel mucus and trapped particles out of the airways.

What are red blood cells?

* Disc-shaped cells
* Contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds to 

oxygen and carbon dioxide 

* O2 enters cells via **diffusion**


* Made in the bone marrow

What are white blood cells?

* Fight infection in the blood
* Also produced in the bone marrow

What are platelets?

* Help blood clot to seal injuries and prevent blood loss
* Result from fragmentation of large cells in the bone marrow

What is plasma?

* It’s a protein-rich liquid that carries the blood cells and other dissolved components


* Maintains fluid balance in the body

What are chief cells?

Chief cells are specialized cells found in the stomach lining, specifically in the gastric glands of the stomach. They are responsible for secreting pepsinogen, an inactive enzyme that is later activated to pepsin, aiding in the digestion of proteins.

What are parietal cells?

Parietal cells are specialized cells located in the stomach lining, particularly in the gastric glands. They secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor.

What is mechanical digestion and what are the forms of it?

Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of food (chewing food is an example)

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* The actual chewing and crushing of food is known as **mastication**
* Another form of mechanical digestion is the smooth muscle contractions, called **peristalsis**, that occur as the food is passed along the digestive tract

What is chemical digestion?

Chemical digestion is the chemical breakdown of food into simpler nutrients that can be absorbed. This is done with the aid of enzymes

What is segmentation?

Segmentation is when digested food is moved back and forth in short segments.

What is the chemical formula for cellular respiration?

C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H20 + ATP energy

What are the circulatory system’s functions

**1. Transport**

* O2
* Nutrients
* CO2
* Waste
* Hormones

**2. Regulation**

* Homeostasis (steady state)

**3. Protection/ Immune Response**

What are the components of the circulatory system?

* **Blood** 


* **Blood Vessels**
* Arteries, Veins, Capillaries


* **Heart**

What is the approximate composition of blood?

55% plasma, 45% RBCs,

What are arteries and what are the smaller ones called?

* Arteries carry blood **away** from the heart
* **Arterioles** are small arteries that

regulate blood pressure

* Their walls have **3 layers:**
* Thin inner epithelium
* Thick elastic smooth muscle layer
* Outer connective tissue

Need to be thick to withstand the **high pressure** of the blood pumping through them

What are veins and what are the smaller ones called?

* Veins carry blood **toward** the heart
* Venules are small veins 


* Venule and vein walls have **3 layers**
* Thin inner epithelium
* Thinner, inelastic smooth muscle layer
* Outer connective tissue


* Veins are thinner than arteries, they have **less pressure**


* Veins that carry blood against gravity have **valves** to keep blood flowing toward the heart

What are capillaries?

* Tiny blood vessels between arterioles and venules

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* Made of one layer of epithelial tissue
* one cell thick


* Allow for diffusion of oxygen and nutrients into cell and carbon dioxide out of the cell

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What is the difference between an open and closed circulatory system?

Open circulatory systems which are commonly found in invertebrates have free flowing blood because unlike closed systems, they do not have vessels to contain them.

What are the four chambers of the heart?

* **Right Atrium** receives oxygen-poor blood from the body
* **Right Ventricle** pumps oxygen-poor blood into the lungs
* **Left Atrium** receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs
* **Left Ventricle** pumps oxygen-rich blood into the rest of the body
* Note that heart has 4 valves

What is the blood’s pathway?

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* **Deoxygenated blood** in the heart is pumped to the lungs through **arteries** to “pick up” oxygen
* **Gas exchange** occurs in the **lungs** through capillaries
* CO2 diffuses from blood into lungs
* O2 diffuses from lungs into blood
* **Oxygenated blood** returns to heart through **veins**
* **Oxygenated blood** is pumped from the heart to the body through **arteries**

What are the largest veins and arteries called

* Vena cava
* Has inferior and superior to carry blood from upper and lower body
* Aorta

What are pulmonary arteries and veins?

* The pulmonary veins are responsible for carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart
* The pulmonary arteries, on the other hand, are responsible for carrying deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it undergoes oxygenation

What is the respiratory system’s main function?

Gas exchange

What are the parts of the respiratory system

Note that the larynx is also called the voice box and the trachea is often called the windpipe

What protects the respiratory tract when eating?

* The **uvula** is a small muscle that covers the nasal cavity when swallowing food
* The **epiglottis** is a flap that covers the opening of the trachea when swallowing, prevents choking while eating

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How many lobes does each side of the lung have?

3 on the right and 2 on the left

What are alveoli?

* Tiny **air sacs** at the end of the bronchioles
* Look like bunches of grapes
* Site of **gas exchange** 
* Covered in **capillaries** 


* Maximized surface area to increase diffusion 
* Very thin (few cells)
* Shortens diffusion distance

**Surfactant** (mix of lipids and proteins) covers the alveoli to prevent them from collapsing during exhalation

What is the diaphragm?

The **diaphragm** is a skeletal muscle that separates the abdominal and thoracic cavity (chest)

* Dome-shaped
* Responsible for inhalation and exhalation

What happens when you inhale?

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* **Diaphragm** **contracts** and **moves** **down**
* Rib muscles **contract** and **move out**
* Air pressure in chest cavity **decreases**
* Causes your chest cavity to **fill with air** as you breathe in

What happens when you exhale?

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* **Diaphragm** **relaxes** and **moves up**
* Rib muscles **relax** and **move in**
* Air pressure in chest cavity **increases**
* Causes air to be **pushed out** during exhalation