Middle Childhood and adulthood

Childhood obesity:

In a child, having a BMI above the 95th percentile, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s 1980 standards for children of a given age.

Asthma:

A chronic disease of the respiratory system in which inflammation narrows the airways from the nose and mouth to the lungs, causing difficulty in breathing. Signs and symptoms include wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing.

Concrete operational thought:

Piaget’s term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions.

Classification:

The logical principle that things can be organized into groups (or categories or classes) according to some characteristic that they have in common.

Seriation:

The concept that things can be arranged in a logical series, such as the number sequence or the alphabet.

Working memory:

Memory that is active at any given moment.

Knowledge base:

A body of knowledge in a particular area that makes it easier to master new information in that area.

English Language Learners (ELLs):

Children in the United States whose proficiency in English is low — usually below a cutoff score on an oral or written test. Many children who speak a non-English language at home are also capable in English; they are not ELLs.

Immersion:

A strategy in which instruction in all school subjects occurs in the second (usually the majority) language that a child is learning.

Bilingual education:

A strategy in which school subjects are taught in both the learner’s original language and the second (majority) language.

ESL (English as a Second Language):

A U.S. approach to teaching English that gathers all of the non-English speakers together and provides intense instruction in English. Students’ first languages are never used; the goal is to prepare them for regular classes in English.

Hidden curriculum:

The unofficial, unstated, or implicit patterns within a school that influence what children learn. For instance, teacher background, organization of the play space, and tracking are all part of it — not formally prescribed, but instructive to the children.

Trends in Math and Science Study (TIMSS):

An international assessment of the math and science skills of fourth- and eighth-graders. Although it is very useful, different countries’ scores are not always comparable because sample selection, test administration, and content validity are hard to keep uniform.

Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS):

Inaugurated in 2001, a planned five-year cycle of international trend studies in the reading ability of fourth-graders.

Program for International Student Assessment (PISA):

assesses the knowledge and skills of 15-year-old students in reading, mathematics, and science. Conducted every three years

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP):

An ongoing and nationally representative measure of U.S. children’s achievement in reading, mathematics, and other subjects over time; nicknamed “the Nation’s Report Card.”

Comorbid:

Refers to the presence of two or more unrelated disease conditions at the same time in the same person.

Neurodiversity:

The idea that each person has neurological strengths and weaknesses that should be appreciated, in much the same way diverse cultures and ethnicities are welcomed. Seems particularly relevant for children with disorders on the autism spectrum.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD):

A condition characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or by hyperactive or impulsive behaviors; ADHD interferes with a person’s functioning or development.

Specific learning disorder:

A marked deficit in a particular area of learning that is not caused by an apparent physical disability, by an intellectual disability, or by an unusually stressful home environment.

Dyslexia:

Unusual difficulty with reading; thought to be the result of some neurological underdevelopment.

Dyscalculia:

Unusual difficulty with math, probably originating from a distinct part of the brain.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD):

A developmental disorder marked by difficulty with social communication and interaction — including difficulty seeing things from another person’s point of view — and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.

Least restrictive environment (LRE):

A legal requirement that children with special needs be assigned to the most general educational context in which they can be expected to learn.

Response to intervention (RTI):

An educational strategy intended to help children who demonstrate below-average achievement in early grades, using special intervention.

Individual education plan (IEP):

A document that specifies educational goals and plans for a child with special needs.

Puberty:

The time between the first onrush of hormones and full adult physical development. Usually lasts three to five years. Many more years are required to achieve psychosocial maturity.

Menarche:

A girl’s first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation. Pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after

Spermarche:

A boy’s first ejaculation of sperm. Erections can occur as early as infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production. Spermarche may occur during sleep (in a “wet dream”) or via direct stimulation.

Pituitary:

A gland in the brain that responds to a signal from the hypothalamus by producing many hormones, including those that regulate growth and that control other glands, among them the adrenal and sex glands.

Adrenal glands:

Two glands, located above the kidneys, that respond to the pituitary, producing hormones.

HPA (hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal) axis:

A sequence of hormone production originating in the hypothalamus and moving to the pituitary and then to the adrenal glands.

Gonads:

The paired sex glands (ovaries in females, testicles in males). The gonads produce hormones and mature gametes.

HPG (hypothalamus–pituitary–gonad) axis:

A sequence of hormone production originating in the hypothalamus and moving to the pituitary and then to the gonads.

Circadian rhythm:

A day–night cycle of biological activity that occurs approximately every 24 hours.

growth spurt:

The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso.

body image:

A person’s idea of how their body looks.

anorexia nervosa:

An eating disorder characterized by self-starvation. Affected individuals voluntarily undereat and often overexercise, depriving their vital organs of nutrition. Anorexia can be fatal.

bulimia nervosa:

An eating disorder characterized by binge eating and subsequent purging, usually by induced vomiting and/or use of laxatives.

binge eating disorder:

Frequent episodes of uncontrollable overeating to the point that the stomach hurts. Usually, the person feels shame and guilt but is unable to stop.

primary sex characteristics:

The parts of the body that are directly involved in reproduction include the vagina, uterus, ovaries, testicles, and penis.

secondary sex characteristics:

Physical traits that are not directly involved in reproduction but that indicate sexual maturity, such as a man’s beard and a woman’s breasts.

child sexual abuse:

Any erotic activity that arouses an adult and excites, shames, or confuses a child, whether or not the victim protests and whether or not genital contact is involved.

sexually transmitted infection (STI):

A disease spread by sexual contact; includes syphilis, gonorrhea, genital herpes, chlamydia, and HIV.

adolescent egocentrism:

A characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people (ages 10 to 13) to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others.

imaginary audience:

The other people who, in an adolescent’s egocentric belief, are watching and taking note of their appearance, ideas, and behavior. This belief makes many teenagers very self-conscious.

personal fable:

An aspect of adolescent egocentrism is characterized by an adolescent’s belief that their thoughts, feelings, and experiences are unique or are more wonderful or more awful than anyone else’s.

invincibility fable:

An adolescent’s egocentric conviction that they cannot be overcome or even harmed by anything that might defeat a normal mortal, such as unprotected sex, drug abuse, or high-speed driving.

formal operational thought:

In Piaget’s theory, the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, characterized by more systematic logical thinking and by the ability to understand and systematically manipulate abstract concepts.

Hypothetical thought:

Reasoning that includes propositions and possibilities that may not reflect reality.

deductive reasoning:

Reasoning from a general statement, premise, or principle, through logical steps, to figure out (deduce) specifics. (Also called top-down reasoning.)

inductive reasoning:

Reasoning from one or more specific experiences or facts to reach (induce) a general conclusion. (Also called bottom-up reasoning.)

dual processing:

The notion that two networks exist within the human brain, one for emotional processing of stimuli and one for analytical reasoning.

intuitive thought:

Thought that arises from an emotion or a hunch, beyond rational explanation, and is influenced by past experiences and cultural assumptions.

analytic thought:

Thought that results from analysis, such as a systematic ranking of pros and cons, risks and consequences, possibilities, and facts. Analytic thought depends on logic and rationality.

secondary education:

Literally, the period after primary education (elementary or grade school) and before tertiary education (college). It usually occurs from about ages 12 to 18, although there is some variation by school and by nation.

high-stakes test:

An evaluation that is critical in determining success or failure. If a single test determines whether a student will graduate or be promoted

middle school:

A school for children in the grades between elementary school and high school. Usually begins with grade 5 or 6 and ends with grade 8.

industry versus inferiority:

The fourth of Erikson’s eight psychosocial crises, during which children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent.

social comparison:

The tendency to assess one’s abilities, achievements, social status, and other attributes by measuring them against those of other people, especially one’s peers.

Resilience:

The capacity to adapt well to significant adversity and to overcome serious stress.

Parentification:

When a child acts more like a parent than a child. May occur if the actual parents do not act as caregivers, making a child feel responsible for the family.

family structure:

The legal and genetic relationships among relatives living in the same home. Possible structures include nuclear family, extended family, stepfamily, single-parent family, and many others.

Standard North American Family (SNAF):

A family with a mother and a father and their biological children, which is no longer the norm in the United States.

extended family:

A family of relatives, in addition to the nuclear family, usually has three or more generations living in one household.

family function:

The way a family works to meet the needs of its members. Children need families to provide basic material necessities, to encourage learning, to help them develop self-respect, to nurture friendships, and to foster harmony and stability.

Cohabitation:

An arrangement in which a couple lives together in a committed romantic relationship but are not formally married.

child culture:

The idea that each group of children has games, sayings, clothing styles, and superstitions that are not common among adults, just as every culture has distinct values, behaviors, and beliefs.

Aggressive-rejected:

A type of childhood rejection, when other children do not want to be friends with a child because of that child’s antagonistic, confrontational behavior.

Withdrawn-rejected:

A type of childhood rejection, when other children do not want to be friends with a child because of their timid, withdrawn, and anxious behavior.

Bullying:

Repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm on other people through physical, verbal, or social attack on a weaker person.

Bully-victim:

Someone who attacks others and who is attacked as well. (Also called provocative victims because they do things that elicit bullying.)

Preconventional moral reasoning:

Kohlberg’s first level of moral reasoning, emphasizing rewards and punishments.

Conventional moral reasoning:

Kohlberg’s second level of moral reasoning emphasizes social rules.

postconventional moral reasoning:

Kohlberg’s third level of moral reasoning emphasizes moral principles.

identity versus role confusion:

Erikson’s fifth stage of development, when people wonder “Who am I?” but are confused about which of many possible roles to adopt.

identity achievement:

Erikson’s term for the attainment of identity, when people know who they are as unique individuals, combining past experiences and future plans.

Role confusion:

When adolescents have no clear identity, they instead fluctuating from one persona to another. (Sometimes called identity diffusion or role diffusion.)

Foreclosure:

Erikson’s term for premature identity formation, when adolescents adopt their parents’ or society’s roles and values without questioning or analysis.

gender identity:

A person’s acceptance (or not) of the roles and behaviors that society associates with a particular gender.

parental monitoring:

Parents’ ongoing knowledge of what their children are doing, where, and with whom.

Familism:

The belief that family members should support one another, sacrificing individual freedom and success, if necessary, in order to preserve family unity and protect the family.

peer pressure:

Encouragement to conform to friends or contemporaries in behavior, dress, and attitude. Adolescents do many things with peers that they would not do alone.

coercive joining:

When others strongly encourage someone to join in their activity, usually when the activity is not approved by authorities (e.g., drug use, bullying).

sexual orientation:

A person’s romantic or sexual attraction, which can be to others of the same gender, the other gender, or every gender.

Cyberbullying:

When people try to harm others via electronic means, such as social media, cell phone photos, or texts.

Sexting:

Sending sexual messages or photographs (usually of one’s naked body) via phone or computer.

major depressive disorder (MDD):

Feelings of hopelessness, lethargy, and worthlessness that last two weeks or more.

suicidal ideation:

Serious thinking about suicide, often including extreme emotions and thoughts.

Parasuicide:

Any potentially deadly self-harm that does not result in death. (Also called attempted suicide or failed suicide.)

cluster suicides:

Several suicides committed by members of a group within a brief period.

adolescence-limited offender:

A person who breaks the law as a teenager but whose criminal activity stops by age 20.

life-course-persistent offender:

A person whose criminal activity begins in adolescence and continues throughout life; a “career” criminal.

generational forgetting:

The idea is that each new generation forgets what the previous generation learned. As used here, the term refers to knowledge about the harm drugs can do.

emerging adulthood:

The period of life between the ages of 18 and 25. Emerging adulthood is now widely thought of as a distinct developmental stage.

organ reserve:

The capacity of organs to allow the body to cope with stress, via extra, unused functioning ability.

Homeostasis:

The adjustment of all of the body’s systems to keep physiological functions in a state of equilibrium. As the body ages, it takes longer for these homeostatic adjustments to occur, so it becomes harder for older bodies to adapt to stress.

Allostasis:

A dynamic body adjustment, related to homeostasis, that affects overall physiology over time. The main difference is that homeostasis requires an immediate response, whereas allostasis requires a longer-term adjustment.

Postformal thought:

A proposed adult stage of cognitive development, following Piaget’s four stages, that goes beyond adolescent thinking by being more practical, more flexible, and more dialectical (i.e., more capable of combining contradictory elements into a comprehensive whole).

Objective thought:

Thinking is not influenced by the thinker’s personal qualities but instead involves facts and numbers that are universally considered valid.