ANTH FINAL - KEYTERMS

Band / Mobile Hunter-Gatherer Group

Numbers: Less than 100

Political Organization: kin-based, egalitarian informal

Economic Organization: hunting & gathering wild foods

Settlement Pattern: Temporary camps & activity areas

Religious Organization: Shamanic

Architecture: Temporary Shelters

Tribe / Segmentary Society

Numbers: generally, under 1000 but up to a few thousand

Political Organization: tribal associations, ephemeral leaders

Economic Organization: early famers, pastoralist herders

Settlement Pattern: permanent or semi-permanent villagers

Religious Organization: religious elders, calendrical rituals

Architecture: permanent huts, burial mounds, shrines

Chiefdom

Numbers: 5,000 - 20,000+

Political Organization: kinship-based rank, hereditary leader

Economic Organization: redistribution, craft specialization

Settlement Pattern: permanent ritual centers, site hierarchy

Religious Organization: hereditary religious leaders

Architecture: permanent structures, large-scale monuments

State

Numbers: 20,000+

Political Organization: class hierarchy, kings/emperors, army

Economic Organization: bureaucracy, tribute, taxation, laws

Settlement Pattern: cities, towns, frontier defenses, roads

Religious Organization: priestly class

Architecture: city planning, palaces, public buildings

Egalitarian

People have an equal chance of filling important positions; relating to or believing in the principle that all people are equal & deserve equal rights & opportunities.

Ranked

Status is differentiated is well-established, powerful positions are limited, & some people have more access than others (ascribed v. achieved)

Unilineal Evolution

a theory in anthropology that suggests human societies progress through a single, predetermined sequence of developmental stages, moving from complex forms. refers to the idea that there is a set sequence of stages that all groups will pass through at some point, although the pace of progress through these stages will vary greatly. groups, both past & presents, that are at the same level or stage of development were considered nearly identical.

Social Organization

the rules & structures that govern relation within group of interacting people. the system of relationships between persons & among groups with regard to the division of activity & the functional arrangement of mutual obligations within society.

material remains: sites, like location of human activity, often defined by the boundaries of artifacts & features; settlement patterns, remains of how people organize their sites in a region, as well as their movements around & activities in a region.

Settlement Patterns

the system of relationships between persons & among groups with regard to the division of activity & the function arrangement of mutual obligations within society; remains of how people organize their sites in a region, as well as their movements around & activities within a region

Kinship

refers to the social system that defies family relations based on blood ties, marriage, or adoption

Irrigation Hypothesis

Proposed by Karl Wittfogel, it attributes the origin of the state to the administrative demands of irrigation—posits that large scale irrigation systems, particularly in arid regions, let to the establishment of centralized bureaucratic states, which often resulted in autocratic governance.

Warfare & Circumscription Hypothesis

proposed by Robert Cameiro, it attributes the origin of the state to the administrative burden of warfare conducted for conquest as a response to geographic limits on arable land in the face of a rising population.

Achieved Status

refers to a social position that individuals attain/earned or chosen through their own efforts, skills, & accomplishments.

Ascribed Status

refers to the social status that an individual acquires at birth or have no control over—plays an significant role in determining the power dynamics & roles with society

Matrilineal / Local

a group of individuals who share a line of matrilineal descent; a unilineal (showing descent through only one line of the family) descent system in which ancestry is traced through the female line.

Patrilineal / Local

a group of individuals who share a line of patrilineal descent; a unilineal (showing descent through only one line of the family) descent system in which ancestry is traced through the male line.

Anatomical Modernity

refers to the stage in human evolution when anatomical characteristics became indistinguishable from those of modern humans; anatomically, modern humans can generally be characterized by the lighter build of their skeletons compared to earlier humans. modern humans have very large brains. our jaws are also less heavily developed, with smaller teeth.

Behavior Modernity

refers to a suite of behavioral & cognitive traits that distinguish current homosapiens from other anatomically modern humans; the upper paleolithic has the earliest known evidence of behaviorally modern humans! homosapiens were demonstrating the behaviors that modern humans do. it came with tools that were more specialized in making and usage: abundant tools made of bones, shells, antlers, etc. It also came with the huge cognitive leap of making art for art’s sake, of teaching and storytelling, of cooperation & communication. 

Cognitive Archaeology

the study of all those aspects of ancient cultural that are the product of the human mind; the perception, description, & classification of the universe’ the nature of the supernatural; the principles, philosophies, ethics, & values by which human societies are governed; & the ways in which aspects of the world, the supernatural or human values conveyed in art.

– the study of the aspects of ancient culture that are the product of the human mind. The study of past ways of thought from material remains. 

– ethics & value systems

– supernatural beliefs (religion) 

– worldview

– categorizations

Symbol

material representations of ideas or concepts; an object or act (verbal or nonverbal) that, by cultural convention, stands for something else with which it has no necessary connection.

early indicators of symbol use: development of language & self-consciousness, evidence of design & tool manufacture, procurement of materials & planning, use of monuments to mark territory, deliberate burial of human remains, abstract & representational art

Ritual

discrete behaviors that must be performed in particular ways under certain circumstances (can involve gestures, words, objects, places, etc…)

Religion

a specific set of beliefs about supernatural beings & humankind’s relationships to them (easier to identify when that religion is not related to everyday life/it is out of your way).

Abstract Art

refers to the genre of art that uses visual elements such as color, shape, form & line to create compositions that may exist independently of visual references in the world.

Representational Art

refers to artworks that depict recognizable subjects from the real world, so things like cave paintings that depict archers/hunters; characterized by its ability to accurately represent objects or scenes, making them instantly recognizable for viewers.

Shamanism

religion involving a practitioner reaching altered states of consciousness in order to perceive and interact with a spiritual world

—thought they were able to access higher beings in an altered state like drug use, 

—tend to include animals, like a shaman can become the animal? (spirit guide, omens, message bearers) 

Bear Shamanism—shows up in the archaeological record anywhere were bears naturally occur. 

Many agricultural groups saw bears as persons, striking skeletal similarities between humans & bears. They construct dwellings, they eat the same food that we eat, they have a voracious sweet tooth. Bears react emotionally & often in human-like ways—cry tears, spank children, sigh when they’re upset or worried. Probably for these reasons, among others, bears portray bears as kin or ancestors.

Sympathetic Magic

rituals in which doing something to an image of an object produces the desired effect in the real object

Cosmology

the study of origin, large-scale structure, & future of the universe. a cosmological explanation demonstrates how the universe developed—both the totality & constituent parts—also describes what principles keep it together.

Cultural Resource Management (CRM)

a professional field that conducts activities, including archaeology, related to compliance with legislation aimed at conserving cultural resources. a process that involves the identification, evaluation, documentation, & protection of cultural resources, such as historical sites, artifacts, & traditions. it aims to balance the preservation of cultural heritage with the demands of development & land use, ensuring that important cultural assets are safeguarded while allowing for sustainable growth.

Phase I: assessment 

Literature review

Surface survey

Phase II: assessment

Artifact analysis

Shovel test survey

Phase III: mitigation

Monitoring

Project redesign

Excavation— or protection of archaeological resource without excavating

Cultural Resources

physical features, both natural & artificial associated with human activity, including sites, structures, & objects possessing significance in history, architecture, or human development. cultural properties are unique & nonrenewable resources.

Assessment

refers to the systematic evaluation of a potential archaeological site to determine its significance & the scope any cultural resources it may contain. this process often includes various methods such as fields surveying, geophysical surveys, & test excavations to identify the presence & extent of artifacts or structures. assessment helps in understanding the historical significance of the site & informs decisions about further study or conservation needs.

Mitigation

a process aimed at avoiding damage to archaeological resources during development projects.

Area of Potential Impact (APE)

The Area of Potential Impact (APE) in archaeology refers to the geographic area where a proposed project may directly or indirectly affect cultural resources.

• Phase I Investigations: These are conducted to identify archaeological sites within the APE, often using methods like pedestrian surveys and shovel testing.

• Phase II Investigations: This phase evaluates identified sites for their eligibility for listing in the National Register of Historic Places, typically involving test unit excavation.

• Impact Assessment: The assessment includes evaluating the potential impacts of the project on archaeological resources and developing management strategies if unavoidable impacts are identified.

• Cultural Resources: The identification and evaluation of cultural resources within the APE are crucial for preserving and protecting archaeological sites.

Antiquities Act 1906

– teddy roosevelt, allowed the president to set aside places/buildings as national monuments. Puts into laws prohibitions of collecting things, & collections made legally must be maintained in museums. Basic laws that protect archaeological sites but importantly only in the national monuments

this act (1) required federal permits before excavating or collecting artifacts on federal land, (2) established a permitting process, & (3) gave the president authority to create national monuments.

Archaeological Resources Protection Act 1979

this (1) prohibits the excavation or removal of artifacts from federal property without a permit, (2) prohibits the sale, exchange, or transport of artifacts acquired illegally from federal property, & (3) increased the penalties for violations of the act over those of the Antiquities Act

• Requires permit to excavate or collect archaeological resources

• Requires museum curation

• Fines increased to 100 000 & possible imprisonment

Forbids trade, sale, transport or exchange of objects

• Site information is exempted from Freedom of Information Act

NAGPRA

Native American Graves Protection & Repatriation Act, passed in 1990, this act (1) protects Indian graves on federal & tribal lands, (2) recognizes tribal authority over the treatment of unmarked graves, (3) prohibits the commercial selling of native dead bodies, (4) requires an inventory & repatriation of human remains held by the federal government & institutions that receive federal funding, (5) requires these same institutions to return inappropriately acquired sacred objects & other important communally owned property to native owners, & (6) sets up a process to determine ownership of human remains found on federal & tribal property after Nov 16, 1990

NAGPRA Basics: Who & Want

Who must comply?

Federal agencies—any instrument of the united states

Museums—any institution that receives money from the federal government & had possession or control over the objects

(Private collectors are not subject to this law)

Who may claim?

Lineal descendants (who can show an unbroken line of descent from the item)

Indian Tribes (573 Federally Recognized Indian Tribes)

Many states have state-recognized tribes & have passed laws similar & are willing to work with non-federally recognized tribes

What Objects are Covered?

Human Remains

Funerary Objects

Sacred Objects

Objects of Cultural Patrimony

Human Remains

physical remains of deceased individuals, including bones, teeth & soft tissues—providing insights into past societies, health, diet, burial practices & cultural identities.

Object of Cultural Patrimony

refers to items that hold ongoing historical, traditional, or cultural significance to a Native American tribe, rather than being owned by an individual member. these objects are considered inalienable & cannot be appropriated or conveyed by any individual member of the group. examples include: sacred objects & funerary objects that are central to the cultural practices & traditions of the tribe or organization

Funerary Object

a defined as an item intentionally placed with human remains during a burial or as part of a death-related ceremony. these objects are often included to honor the deceased or assist them in the afterlife. additionally, funerary objects can refer to artifacts or objects that are reasonably believed to have been placed with individual’s human remains as part of a cultural death rite or ceremony.

Sacred Object

an object that is culturally significant to a group (native american) is needed by traditional religious leaders for the practice of their religion. these objects are considered part of cultural patrimony & are distinct from human remains or funerary objects.

Cultural Affiliation

in NAGPRA, “a relationships of shared group identity which can be reasonably traced historically or prehistorically between a present-day Indian tribe or Native Hawaiian organization & an identifiable earlier group.

National Historic Preservation Act 1966

NHPA, passed in 1966, this act created (1) the National Register of Historic Places, (2) the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation & (3) State Historic Preservation Offices, as well as (4) a process to mitigate the impact of development; it also requires that government agencies provide good stewardship of their cultural resources.

Section 106

requires federal agencies to consider their effects of their projects on historic properties & to consult with relevant parties to mitigate any adverse impacts; to ensure that federal agencies take into account the effects of their actions on historic properties. this includes any project that is federally funded, permitted, or licensed. The primary goal is to protect and preserve historic sites, buildings, and structures that are listed or eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places.

National Register of Historic Places

a list of significant historic & prehistoric properties, including districts, sites, buildings, structures & objects.

Partage

the practice of the dividing artifacts between archaeologists, patrons, and the host territory, common until about WWII

Example: bust of Nefertiti, found by a German expedition in Egypt. They did something that seems pertinent to this system—they dirtied up the bust to make it less appealing

Public Archaeology

defined as a field of archaeology that involves the public in archaeological activities, aims to make findings widely accessible, and increases public interest and understanding of cultural heritage. It encompasses various activities such as lectures, interpretive signs, and tours of archaeological sites. Additionally, it is the practice of presenting archaeological data and interpretations to the public, fostering engagement and interaction.

Working with the Public

refers to the active involvement of communities in archaeological research, discussions, and activities. this engagement is crucial for sharing knowledge, sharing knowledge, & encouraging public interest in archaeology. public outreach can take many forms, including workshops, community excavations, educational programs, & social media outreach. By fostering collaboration between archaeologists and the public, we can enhance the relevance of archaeological findings and encourage collective stewardship of our shared heritage

ethical considerations in public outreach include ensuring that information is accurately represented & that local communities are respected in the process. public outreach can occur anytime and anywhere in any number of formats, & it can & should take place before, during, & after an archaeological research project.

Archaeology by the Public

Instead of working with the public to enhance & protect archaeological resources, this is like… not just experts. Activities range from things strongly discouraged to strongly supported by archaeologists. 

York Archaeological Trust, provide professional consultation to help with community groups who want to research historical aspects of their local communities. Offers assistance during different phases of the project.

Public Sector Archaeology

Heritage resource management work done for national, regional or local governments. Much of the archaeology done in the U.S. is because it is federally mandated before construction projects. 

National Institute of Culture & History

This type of government archaeology happens under different laws out of the U.S.; does general outreach outside of the community 

Archaeological Education

both formal & informal learning about archaeology; a lot of the focus in research. 

Day of Archaeology asks people to participate by recording their days & share it to public website to raise relevance & importance. 

Penn Museum provides archaeological specialists who provide classroom activities & resources, thriving field trip programs & professional development

Children’s Workshop School (New York, NYC), many renovations made. Old wooden closets that had wooden gaps, & they found a lot of stuff.

Open Archaeology

Ben Franklin “Ghost House” 

President’s House Open Excavation

Catalhoyuk, Turkey, a lot of public archaeology is done at the site. One of the most innovative aspect is a website called “remixing Catalhoyuk” where they they can move things around digitally, a ton of data which is completely publicly accessible.

Forensic Archaeology

a specialized field that applies standard archaeological methods to the recovery and analysis of evidence at forensic scenes, particularly those involving human remains. It focuses on the meticulous location, recovery, and documentation of buried or concealed evidence, assisting in modern legal investigations. Forensic archaeologists use their understanding of soil layers and material culture to collect evidence in a manner that preserves its context and ensures its admissibility in court

Repatriation

refers to the process of returning cultural artifacts and human remains to their regions of origin, often involving negotiations between museums, governments, and indigenous peoples.

Repatriation & Descendent Communities

— “otherings” can just be finding something or someone interesting because they are different from you.

UNESCO Convention of 1970

requires that signers create legislation & the administrative structure to (1) regulate the import & export of cultural objects, (2) forbid their nations’ museums from acquiring illegally exported cultural objects, (3) establish ways to inform other nations when illegally exported objects are found within a country’s borders, (4) return or otherwise provide restitution of cultural objects stolen from public institutions, & (5) establish a register of art dealers & require them to register.

UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting & Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (1983).

Hague Convention

Hague convention for the protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict. an international agreement that provides rules for the protection of antiquities in wartime.

Pennsylvania Declaration

Pennsylvania Declaration/ the Penn Museum (1970) first museum in the world to stop accepting any looted items. Intensification (1978): Reserved the right to refuse loaning artifacts to other museums who have/continue to receive artifacts less than above board.

Looting

– the illegal disturbance of archaeological or historical sites in order to recover artifacts for personal benefit

Exclusively negative consequences, very extreme

Collecting

– legal, minimally invasive acquisition of artifacts by private individuals for possession or display

Loses context, might never be viewed by the public, encourages the antiquities market, can lead to looting.

Provenance

the origin of an object and its subsequent history of ownership (like a list of homeownership/chain of title).

Partage

the practice of the dividing artifacts between archaeologists, patrons, and the host territory, common until about WWII

Example: bust of Nefertiti, found by a German expedition in Egypt. They did something that seems pertinent to this system—they dirtied up the bust to make it less appealing 

Cultural Heritage

The convention for the protection of the World Cultural & Natural Heritage (1972): “Works on man or combined works of natural and man, and areas including archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal value from the historical aesthetic ethnological or anthropological point of view.”

“Material remains of the past, imbued with value by current populations because of a belief in their religious, cultural, aesthetic, historical or educational significance.” 

Subsistence Looting

refers to the practice of illicit excavation of archaeological sites for saleable cultural objects due to extreme poverty. Individuals engage in this activity for survival rather than profit, as they lack other economic opportunities. The term is derived from the idea of subsistence farming, indicating that the person is looting for survival, not for financial gain.

Looting Example: St. Lawrence Island

Subsistence Digging 

Taking place by indigenous communities in Alaska. Changes our idea of it, “history & legality, who is doing it, the value of the practice of those participating”

Looting only began after archaeologists came in, as they were encouraged to work with archaeologists. They offered to pay money to the locals to find (silver?) statues & artifacts & stuff. 

This is being done by the descendants of the people (poor) & also on private property;

Historical Archaeology

—the study of human behavior through material remains, in which written history in some ways affects its interpretation. 

Most historical archaeologists focus on the period after the 15th cent. (even though written documents existed before then)

• Started with a focus on the US but now global

• Allows you to look beyond what was written down

• Allow you to look at much shorter time periods

Garbology

Garbology (noun). Orig. U.S. W. Rathie’s term for the scientific study of the refuse of a modern society; the investigation of material discarded by a society considered as an aspect of social science. 

Going into landfill & wanting to tell what you can find out about modern culture from things thrown away. 

Why study garbage? Look at garbage & learn important information! consumer behavior, environmental impact, community engagement

Rescue Archaeology

also known as salvage archaeology, preventive archaeology, or commercial archaeology, involves archaeological survey and excavation conducted in advance of construction or land development. Its primary goal is to document and preserve archaeological sites that would otherwise be destroyed or significantly altered by construction projects, such as roads, buildings, or dams.

Underwater Archaeology

defined as the study of archaeological sites, shipwrecks, and artifacts located beneath the surface of bodies of water. This field involves the systematic documentation and recovery of information from submerged artifacts and underwater sites to interpret past human cultures. It investigates human cultural and historical events that transpired underwater, such as shipwrecks and submerged cities.

Collections-Based Research

a method that focuses on utilizing existing archaeological collections to answer scholarly questions. This approach is particularly useful in areas where field-based research is limited or where the focus is on a specific region or time period. By using well-documented collections, researchers can extract valuable data without the need for additional excavations. This method addresses the curation crisis and supports the preservation of artifacts for future study. It also prevents the unnecessary disturbance of archaeological sites, preserving them for future generations.

Descendant Community

refers to groups that have ancestral ties to archaeological collections or sites. These communities may include tribal nations, organizations, or families representing diasporic communities. Descendant communities play a crucial role in archaeological practices by providing insights into their histories and cultural practices, ensuring that their perspectives are actively included in research and decision-making processes

Portable Antiquities Scheme

a voluntary program established in 1997 to record archaeological objects found by members of the public in England and Wales. It aims to advance knowledge about the past by documenting finds made through metal detecting, groundworks, or casual exploration. The scheme is managed by the British Museum and involves a network of Finds Liaison Officers who help identify and record these finds.

Archaeology of Migration

examines how and why people move across different geographic spaces throughout history. This field of study is crucial for understanding the social, economic, and cultural transformations that result from migration.

Undocumented Migration Project

Hostile Terrain & In the Land of Open Graves

Reconstructing what is happening along the U.S.-Mexico border. Terrible things that mass of migrating peoples in route (not random nor senseless but part of a strategic plan by federal gov. meant to drive people to places where they most likely will die in route)

Applied Science

archaeology is often considered an applied science due to its reliance on scientific techniques and methodologies to analyze and interpret archaeological materials and sites. The application of scientific principles, such as empirical observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, data analysis, and peer review, is fundamental to archaeological science. This approach allows archaeologists to make informed interpretations of past human societies and their behaviors. Yet others contend that archaeology is more of a humanistic discipline, emphasizing interpretive and cultural dimensions.

Disaster Archaeology

an interdisciplinary field that applies archaeological skills to analyze and understand the impact of disasters on human history. It involves the investigation of disaster scenes to recover physical evidence, identify victims, and document the events that occurred. This field is crucial for understanding the dynamics of natural and human-induced disasters, as well as for developing strategies for disaster management and resilience in future events. Disaster archaeologists work closely with law enforcement and emergency services to ensure that their findings are collected and interpreted accurately, often in high-pressure and emotionally charged environments

Antiquities Trade

refers to the exchange of antiquities and archaeological artifacts from around the world, which can be either illicit or completely legal. It encompasses the buying and selling of items that are considered to have historical or cultural significance.