summary sociolinguistics

What are the differences between Accent, Dialect, and Variety?

Accent: Differences in pronounciation only

Dialect: Differences in pronunciation, syntax, morphology, and semantics.

Variety: A neutral term used by linguists to refer to both accents and dialects.

What is style shifting?

Individuals vary their speech depending on context, audience, and task.

-Studied by Labov through structured interviews involving different levels of formality (minimal pairs, word lists, narratives, casual talk).

What is Labov’s NYC study?

-Studied the presence or absence of constricted /r/ in department stores using the phrase ‘forth floor’.

-Found more /r/ in formal speech - leading to the ‘attention to speech’ hypothesis.

-Showed that style exists along a continuum, not in fixed categories.

What is Overt and Covert Prestige?

Overt Prestige: Variants associated with high social status (e.g., standard speech).

Covert prestige: Non-standard forms used to show solidarity or local identity.

Example: Trudgill’s Norwich study - men claimed to use /tjun/, but actually used /tun/, indicating covert prestige.

What is the Observe’s Paradox?

-The presence of the researcher may influence how people speak.

-A solution is participant observation: spending extended time in a community to record more natural language use.

-Ethical concerns: Secret recordings are problematic and often illegal

What did Giles argue about attention to others?

-Argues that style is shaped by the audience, not just by self-monitoring.

-Known as speech accommodation theory - people adjust their language based on who they are talking to

What did Bell find out about newscasters?

Found that radio newscasters shifted pronunciation depending on whether they were on a classical or popular station.

-Style shifting reflects what speakers believe are the norms of their audience.

-Style variation within individuals stems from patterns between groups

What are the four Audience types? (Bell)

Addressee: known, ratified, and directly addressed

Auditor: Known and ratified, but not directly addressed

Overhearer: Known, but not ratified or addressed

Eavesdropper: Not known, not ratified, not addressed

What is Bell’s Model of Variation?

-Interspeaker variation (between groups) gives rise to intraspeaker variation (within a person).

-Group norms shape how individuals shift their speech styles.

What was the Springville study?

-Longitudinal study in Texas with African-American participants

-Teenagers showed little variation across interviewers, regardless of ethnicity.

-Elderly participant style-shifted more, especially with unfamiliar people.

-Conclusion: Familiarity matters more than ethnicity.

What does the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggest about language and thought?

It proposed that language influences perception:

-Strong version: language determines how we think

-Weak version: language, thought, and culture shape each other.

Example: ‘fireman’ vs ‘firefighter’ suggests gender bias in role perception.

What is Social Identity Theory (SIT) ?

Henri Tajfel’s theory explains how people derive identity from group membership. Language is a symbol of group boundaries, and when inequalities are seen as unjust or unstable, people are more likely to resist.

What is the difference between personal and group identity in speech?

Personal indentity varies with mood, personality, and situation.

Group identity leads to shared norms, including speech

When group identity is salient, people adjust their language to conform to group expectations.

What is Accommodation Theory?

Developed by Howard Giles, it suggests speakers adapt their language depending on their audience:
Convergence: Becoming more similar (to fit in or build rapport)

Divergence: Emphasising differences (to assert identity or resist norms)

How does the postmodern view challenge essentialist ideas about sex and gender?

The postmodern view argues that even sex is socially constructed and that categories like ‘male’ and ‘female’ are not naturally fixed.

Medical interventions to enforce the binary (e.g., for intersex infants) show how cultural expectations shape biology.

What are ‘communities of practice’ and how do they relate to gender?

A community of practise is a group defined by shared activities and mutual engagement.

-Gender is performed differently across such communities (e.g., sports teams vs. academic circles), showing it’s not fixed.

What are Labov’s principles about gender and language?

Principle 1: in stable situations, men use more nonstandard forms.

Principle 1a: in prestige-driven changes (from above), women lead.

Principle 2: In changes from below, woman innovate more than men.

What is the ‘crossover effect’ in style-shifting?

It occurs when a middle-status group, often led by women, hypercorrects - using more prestigious forms than even the upper class in formal contexts.

This shows that style-shifting is socially motivated, not just linguistic.

What does it mean for language to be ‘performative’ in the postmodern view?

Gender is not something we are, but something we do through language and behaviour. Each act (e.g., using a certain vowel) can contribute to a gendered persona. (Butler, Eckert, Pedsva) (GAY VOICE)

How does the Bocholtz (1996) study challenge stereotypes?

‘Nerd Girls’ rejected dominant femininity by avoiding trendy speech patterns and choosing formal, precise styles. Their language was part of a conscious identity resisting both gender and youth norms.

What does it mean when linguistic variation is stratified?

Stratification means linguistic forms are used more frequently by certain social classes.

it is not deterministic - all groups use all forms to some extent, but frequencies differ consistently.

What is the difference between fine and broad stratification?

Fine Stratification: Small differences between social groups (e.g., within middle classes)

Broad Stratification: Clear, wide linguistic differences between classes (e.g., upper vs. working class).

What is the cross-over effect in sociolingusitics?

Lower middle-class speakers overuse prestigious forms more than the upper middle class, especially in monitored speech

It reflects linguistic insecurity and awareness of class norms.

What is ‘change from above’ vs- ‘change from below’`

Change from above: conscious adopting of prestigious forms (often from outside the community)

Change from below: Unconscious, often working-class led innovations that spread upward.

Who tends to lead linguistic change and why?

Lower middle-class and upper working-class speakers often lead change because:

-They are more mobile

-They are conscious of prestige

-They balance access to both upper and working-class norms

What are stable variables and how do they relate to class?

Some linguistic variants (e.g., ing in walking vs. walkin’) persist over time and show consistent class-based patterns.

Higher-status groups prefer standard forms, reinforcing perceived prestige.

What is the social meaning of the cross-over effect?

Labov’s tests showed that lower middle-class speakers are most sensitive to both prestige and stigma.

They are deeply aware of linguistic hierarchies and often drive style-shifting.

What are the three waves of sociolinguistic research?

First wave: Focus on macro-social categories (class, gender). Style = formality.

Second wave: Emphasises local communities of practice and interactions

Third wave: Treats variation as a symbolic resource used to conduct identities and personae.

How does the Third wave differ from earlier approaches?

Earlier waves viewed language as reflecting fixed categories.

The third wave sees language as dynamic - it both constructs and expresses identity through interaction.

What is style in the third wave framework?

Style is a socially meaningful clustering of features, across linguistic levels and modalities.

It is not just about formality, but about building recognisable identities using sound, syntax, gesture, clothing, etc.

What is the significance of tag questions in sociolinguistics?

Tag questions (e.g., ‘it’s nice out, isn’t it?’ ) can:

-Show uncertainty (Lakoff)

-Seek confirmation (Holmes)

-Soften statements

-Be assertive / aggressive (Algeo)

They show how form + context = meaning.

How did each community use tag questions?

Moore & Podesva (2009) study

Townies: Nonstandard grammar, deleted /t/, rebellious persona

Geeks: Standard grammar, conservative, used tag questions to assert expertise

Populars: Talked about peers, positioning themselves socially with ‘we’ and ‘she’.

Eden Village Girls: Cooperative, overlapped speech, reinforced group norms.

What does this case study show about language and identity?

Linguistic forms (like tag questions) are used strategically to build social meaning. Even the same form can mean different things depending on context, speaker, and community.

What is diglossia?

Diglossia is a situation where two languages (or varieties) coexists in a community, with one used for high-status functions (e.g., education, religion) and one for low-status functions (e.g., home, casual speech).

What is code-switching and how is it different from code-mixing?

Code-switching: Alternating languages across sentences or contexts (e.g., changing language based on addressee).

Code-mixing: Blending elements of two languages within a single utterance or sentence.