ANTH 103 EXAM #2

Paleoanthropology

combines archaeology and physical anthropology to study human evolution

Paleoanthropologists try to find out..

when, where, and why the characteristics of the human lineage appeared

Phylogeny

family tree that describes evolution of species

morphology

measurable form of things

phenotype

distinguishable characteristics of a species

homoplasy

comparisons between species that have similar phenotypes

Species

Genus species

Homo sapiens

(know that this is how it is written)

Problems with fossil records

• small sample sizes

• biased samples: only parts of the skeleton that survive are those whose bone morphology was conductive to fossilization and preservation

• more robust fossils survive

Apes and Humans have evolved separately but..

• shared common ancestor

• human and chimps have similar DNA

What does it mean to be Human?

• upright stature

• use of tools

• large brain relative to body size

• grasping hands with opposable thumbs

• absence of fur

• complex repertoire of behaviors (culture)

• decreased rate of maturation

• language full of meaning and metaphor

African Rift Valley

• best for finding human fossils

• stretches from Southern African to Turkey and Syria

• valuable in search for early hominin sites

First know hominin 7MYA (million years ago)

Miocene

Foramen Magnum

position of it shows which way the spine goes

Bipedalism

walk with two feet

Bipedalism Benefits

• increased ability to see greater distances

• ability to run long distances

• free hands for tool use

Laetoli

• known for the discovery of footprints in volcanic ash - evidence of bipedalism

• found by Mary Leakey in 1978

The Pleistocene (Ice Age)

• 30% of land was under massive ice sheets during the height of glaciation

• africa became a lot cooler and dryer which led to an expansion of grassland habitat

• forests shrank and savannah expanded = changed plant/animal life

• a lot more herbivores now

Homo habilis ( known as “handy man”)

• they are associated with tool making and beginning of material culture - Oldwan Lithic Culture

• first of Homo genus

• brains are now expanding/larger brain case

Homo eructus

• first to leave africa

• found in Africa, Asia and Europe

• associated with Archeulean Lithic Tool Assemblage

• closer to modern human size

Dmanisi

• remains of old man found with one tooth in Dmanisi

• shows that someone helped him and had compassion

Neanderthals first discovered

• neanderthal skull first discovered in Germany

• used to be described as deceased Mongolian + victim of Noahs arc

Neanderthals

• remains were found in europe

• associated with Mousterian Technology

• prepared core technology

• had evidence of compassion: deaf, crippled, 40 years old (all vulnerable ppl)

• intentionally buried the dead with pollen

• developed new/elaborate bone tool tech

Mousterian - Core Technology

tools made by retouching the edges of flakes

Why did Neanderthals go extinct

• climate change

• competition with homo sapiens:

• homo sapiens had better tools, sexual division of labor, increased births, survived diseases

• interbreeding

Homo sapien - Out of Africa Theory

Homo sapiens evolved in africa and spread from there across Asia and Europe

Homo sapien - Multiregional theory

H sapiens evolved from Homo erectus in several places and interbreeding kept them similar

Late Paleotlithic Period

• 40,000 - 12,000 bp (before present)

• humans occupy almost all continents

• differences in artifacts

• hunting techniques now refined

• major environmental fluctuations

Australia colonized by..

Homo sapiens 40,000 years ago

Beringia : glacial land mass that connected Asian continent to North America

• land bridge between Siberia and Alaska

• emerges during glacial periods

• isnt always passable

Why did they come to North America?

• followed herds of mega fauna (all extinct now): mammoths

• mastodons

• giant deer

• camels

• horses

• giant sloths

clovis point

fluted chipped stone points

• associated with early humans that came to the americas

• Mostly known from bison and mammoth kill sites with Clovis points
  

• The distinctive Clovis spearpoints are a vivid and visible signal of that time period

Kennewick man

• earliest human skeletons in the New World, 7500 BC

• body was intentionally placed in grave

• Umatilla/other tribes sued for the remains which they lost

• 2016 legislation passed for the return of the remains

possible migration routes

• coastal route hypothesis

• first americans had enough boats to make it across Bering Strait even without the ;and

ORIGINS OF DOMESTICATION - The Mesolithic

Hunter Gatherers - were the majority of human existence

• humans who old use wild natural resources

• hunt animals and fish

• collect plants, nuts, seeds

• 99.9% of human history

• are small family units

Modern Day hunter gatherers

• San Bushmen

• Mbuti Pygmy

• Hadza

• Inuit

• Aborigines

- have been forced to abandon their way of life

Hunter/Gatherers were very successful at adapting which..

led to expansion of Homo sapiens

We are now in Mesolithic Era due to..

increasing temperatures

Postglacial environments

- dramatic changes in climate

-tundra is now open woodland

- mega fauna over hunted

-more water/land and fertile soil

Culture of the Mesolithic

- diverse diet

-larger community

- permanent settlements

-well defined cemeteries

-long distance trade network = increase of exotic materials

Diverse diet of..

animals, plant, and fish due to settlements in coastal/lakes/rivers

New Technology being used are..

• canoes

• woodworking tools

• fishing tools

• bow and arrow starts being used

• stone tools for plant foods

Artifacts in graves signal..

power/status

red deer in graves are for the…

elderly

flint knives in graves are for..

males

shell and animal teeth jewelry in graves are for..

females

Vedbaek - Denmark

Mesolithic site in Denmark with habitation and graveyard area

Jomon Site, Japan

17 sites that include settlements, burial areas, and stone circles

The Neolithic

beginning of agriculture

natural selection

natural process of change through random mutation that proves to be beneficial in the particular environment it appears in

artificial selection

the intentional biological change in an organism by external forces that are selecting for favorable traits, example: breeding

domestication

production of new species of plants and animals through artificial breeding (artificial selection)

tameness

the bond between humans and non-domesticated animals or plants

cultigen

a particular type of domesticated plant

Domestication can change..

physical characteristics of animals involved

changes in domesticated species are..

smaller bones

factors for animal domestication

• diverse diet

• rapid maturation

• needs to breed a lot

• not aggressive towards humans

• can adapt to changing conditions

• are herd animals

feralization

the process in which domesticated species become untamed and dissocialized to humans ex: pigs

Physical evidence - domestication of dogs from wolves

• Oberkassel Dog

• 14,200 ya

• clear dog morphology different than wolf

• from the late paleolithic

Genetic evidence of dog domestication

• ancient DNA found mutation rate of wolves to dogs

• recent studies show 36,900 - 41,500 ya

• from Late Pleistocene

Domesticated dog behaviors:

• decreased aggression

• smaller tooth, brain, and muscle size

• curly tails

• floppy ears

• muscles around the eyes - puppy eyes

• changes in skull

• increased reproductive success

• piebald coloring

• neoteny = retention of juvenile features into maturity (know this)

benefits of dog domestication:

• source of warmth

• hunting companion/tool

• protects campsite

• emotional support

• emergency food source

Cat domestication

• used for cleaning rodents

• companion animal

• they rely on humans for stable food source

Cats first appeared in images in..

3,600 BP - Egyptian new kingdom tomb paintings

Cats appeared archaeologically in…

Crete approx 9,500 BP

its hard to distinguish domesticated and wild cates because…

their skull morphology very similar

cats criteria:

• limited carnivorous diet

• more attached to places than ppl

• difficult to train

do cats meet the criteria for domestication?

yes for the most part

All food has..

GMO

Carolus Linnaeus

system used to classify hominins

Oldowan Lithic Tool Assemblage

• Discovered by Mary and Louis Leakey

• Fragmented skull bits

• Mary secretly planted the artifacts

Oldowan Tools were so simple that

they were difficult to distinguish from naturally created objects

Acheulean Industry

• associated with Homo erectus

• much more complex

• requires passing of knowledge

• known as “swiss army knife”

Paleoindian 1 Period

• Pre 12,000 ya

• Pre -Clovis

Paleoindian 2 Period

• 12,000 ya

• Clovis Points

Peopling of the Americas

Humans entered the Americas at the very end of the last glaciation, settling south of the ice sheets approximately 12,000 years ago (

Overkill Hypothesis

First Americans brought the extinction of mega fauna because they were good hunters

Seed Shattering

natural mechanism in plants that allow the seeds to break off and propagate into new plants

Glume

seed covering

seed shattering happens due to

brittle rachis (stem that holds seed to the stalk)

In domesticated wheat

seed shattering is reversed due to human selection, plants have stronger rachis and brittle glumes

Primary Center of Domestication

domestication occurred independently as a process of innovation

Secondary Center of Domestication

plants/animals received from elsewhere through migration or trade

oldest domesticated plant

fig

Primary Centers for Domestication

southwest Asia

east Asia

sub saharan Africa

Mesoamerica

south America

north America

Oasis Hypothesis - V Gordon Chile

domestication occurs in an oasis environment

- explained by environmental changes at the end of the Pleistocene ( change in temps, rainfall, increased unpredictability)

Oasis Hypothesis - Counterargument

doesn’t apply to regions where domestication does not appear in oasis environments

Natural Habitat Hypothesis

earliest domestication appeared in the area that their wild ancestors inhabited

Natural Habitat Hypothesis - Counterargument

• no earlier evidence

• assumes domestication will automatically appear once its possibilities are recognized

Population Pressure Hypothesis

population increase in Southwest Asia upset the balance between people and food, forcing people to turn to agriculture to produce more food

EDGE HYPOTHESIS

the need for more food was initially felt at the margins of the natural habitat of the ancestors and domesticated plant and animals

• last resort solution when equilibrium broken between people and food

• a revised version of the Population Pressure Hypothesis

Binford was concerned with

domestication in Southwest Asia

EDGE HYPOTHESIS - Counterargument

- doesn’t apply to cases where domestication appears in resource-rich areas

- population does not always seem particularly large before the advent of agriculture

SOICIAL HYPOTHESIS

domestication allowed certain individuals to accumulate food surplus and to transform those foods into more valued items such as rare stones or metals and even social alliances

• more likely to happen in resource rich areas

social cause to domestication

ambitious individuals eager to accumulate surpluses

Agriculture Risks:

• famine

• malnutrition

• poor hygiene

• diseases

• more work

earliest domesticated cereal

rye

early domesticated plants

wheat, barley, lentils, peas, chickpeas

Hallam Cemi ( SouthWest Asia)

evidence of pig domestication

Domestication process

 sedentism, then plant cultivation, then animal domestication

Abu Hureyra - site discovered by V. Gordon Chile

• discovered through salvage archaeology(was about to be destroyed by construction)

• good evidence of transition from hunting/gathering to farming/herding

• Natufian Culture