PSYASS -REVIWER- MIDTERM 1ST SEM

What is Measurement?

The act of assigning numbers or symbols to characteristics of things (like people or events) according to a set of rules.

What is a Scale?

A set of numbers or symbols whose properties match the empirical properties of the objects they are assigned to.

What does Error refer to in measurement?

The collective influence of all unmeasured factors on a test score or measurement.

Describe the Nominal Scale (Key Property, Description, Example).

Key Property: Classification. Description: Involves classification or categorization into mutually exclusive and exhaustive groups. Example: Eye color, Gender.

Describe the Ordinal Scale (Key Property, Description, Example).

Key Property: Rank Order. Description: Assigns people to categories that have a clear and uncontroversial order. Example: Military rank, School grade level.

Describe the Interval Scale (Key Property, Description, Example).

Key Property: Equal Intervals. Description: Has meaningful distances between numbers where each unit is equal, allowing for addition and subtraction. Example: Temperature (Celsius or Fahrenheit).

Describe the Ratio Scale (Key Property, Description, Example).

Key Property: True Zero. Description: Has all properties of interval scales plus a true zero point which indicates the absence of the quantity being measured. Example: Height, Weight, Reaction time.

What are Continuous Variables?

Variables that can take on an infinite number of possible values (e.g., reaction time).

What are Discrete Variables?

Variables that can only take on fixed whole numbers (e.g., number of children).

What is a Raw Score?

An unmodified, straightforward numerical accounting of performance.

What is a Distribution?

A set of test scores arranged for recording or study.

What is a Frequency Distribution and its types?

Lists all scores alongside the number of times each score occurred ($f$).

Types: (uses individual scores),

replaces actual scores with class intervals/score ranges).

Describe a Histogram.

A graph with vertical lines forming a series of contiguous rectangles. Scores are on the X-axis, and frequency is on the Y-axis.

Describe a Bar Graph.

Similar to a histogram, but the rectangular bars are typically not contiguous (not touching), and the X-axis often represents categories.

Describe a Frequency Polygon.

Expressed by a continuous line connecting points where scores/class intervals meet their frequencies.

What is a Measure of Central Tendency?

A statistic that indicates the average or midmost score in a distribution.

Define and state the application for the Mean ($\overline{X}$).

Definition: The arithmetic average; the sum of observations divided by the number of observations. Application: Most appropriate for Interval or Ratio data when the distribution is approximately normal.

Define and state the application for the Median.

Definition: The middle score in a distribution after scores have been ordered by magnitude. Application: Used when data is skewed or when using ordinal data.

Define and state the application for the Mode.

Definition: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution. Application: Tends to be used only with nominal data.

What is Variability?

Indicates how scores in a distribution are scattered or dispersed.

Define Range (Variability).

The difference between the highest and the lowest scores.

Define Interquartile Range.

The difference between the third quartile (Q3) and the first quartile (Q3)

Define Variance.

The arithmetic mean of the squares of the differences between the scores and their mean.

Define Standard Deviation.

Equal to the square root of the variance.

What is Skewness and its types?

An indication of how the measurements are distributed (asymmetry).

Types: Positive

(tail points right), Negative Skew (tail points left).

What is Kurtosis and its types?

Refers to the steepness or peakedness of a distribution in its center.

Types: (relatively flat),

(relatively peaked),

(like a normal distribution).

List Other Distribution Shapes.

Refers to the steepness or peakedness of a distribution in its center. Types: Platykurtic (relatively flat), Leptokurtic (relatively peaked), Mesokurtic (like a normal distribution).

List Other Distribution Shapes.

Normal curve (bell-shaped, symmetrical), Bimodal distribution (two most frequent scores), J-shaped curve and Rectangular distribution.

What is a Standard Score?

A raw score converted to a new scale with an arbitrarily set mean and standard deviation.

Define Z Score.

Indicates how many standard deviation units a raw score is above or below the mean (a "zero plus or minus one" scale).

Define T Score.

A "fifty plus or minus ten" scale, with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.

Define Stanine.

A standard score with a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of approximately 2, divided into nine units (standard nine).

What is a Correlation Coefficient ($r$)?

A number that provides an index of the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two things.

What is Pearson r used for?

The most widely used coefficient, suitable for linear relationships and when both variables are continuous.

What is Spearman's rho used for?

A rank-order correlation coefficient often used when the sample size is small and measurements are in ordinal (rank-order) form.

What is a Scatterplot?

A graph of coordinate points used to visually represent correlation, useful for revealing curvilinearity (how curved a graph is).

What are the two types of characteristics measured by psychological tests?

Trait (a distinguishable, relatively enduring way an individual differs from another) and State (a less enduring characteristic). Psychological tests measure these.

What must competent test users understand about tests?

They must fully understand a test's proper use, administration, interpretation, and limitations.

What does "error" refer to in the assessment process?

"Error" refers to the various unmeasured factors that influence the test score.

What are the main characteristics of a "Good Test"?

Should have clear instructions, be economical in time and cost, and accurately measure what it claims to measure.

How do professionals primarily judge tests?

By their psychometric soundness, which includes reliability and validity.

Define Reliability and provide an analogy.

Definition: Refers to the precision or consistency of measurement; ensures the same construct yields the same score under the same conditions. Analogy: A scale that consistently shows the wrong weight is reliable but inaccurate.

Define Validity and provide an analogy.

Definition: Refers to the degree to which a test actually measures what it claims to measure. Analogy: A scale that shows the correct, consistent weight is both reliable and valid.

Historical and Cultural Timeline of Psychological Testing

2200 B.C.E. (China): Start of testing for government officials.

Allowed limited social mobility; preparation favored the wealthy. Content changed based on cultural expectations and the ruling dynasty's values.

LII 1960-1279 C.E. (Song/Sung Dynasty) - Imperial Examination.

Test takers with command of the classics were entitled to a government position. Testing was sometimes suspended, and positions were given to family/friends or sold.

Ancient Greco-Roman Era

Philosophers categorized people by personality types based on their overabundance or deficiency in some bodily fluid (like blood or phlegm).

Middle Ages

Critical question was "Who is in league with the Devil?" Various measurement procedures were devised to address this.

18th Century (Christian Von Wolff)

Anticipated psychology as a science and psychological measurement as a specialty within that science.

1859 (Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species)

Introduced natural selection. The chance of getting selected/rejected depends on adaptivity and survival value.

1884 (Francis Galton)

Displayed his Anthropometric Laboratory in London. Pioneered the quantitative study of human variation by measuring traits like height, memory, and motor control.

1880 (Wilhelm Max Wundt)

Established the first experimental psychology laboratory. Tried to formulate a general description of human abilities (reaction time, perception, attention span).

1890 (Cattell)

Coined the term "mental test."

Mental Test: Definition

A standardized assessment tool used to measure various psychological attributes such as intelligence, personality, behavior, emotions, and cognitive abilities.

1905 (Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon)

Introduced the "Measuring Scale of Intelligence," the first modern intelligence test.

The Measurement of Intelligence: Definition

A standardized test using a series of standardized tasks to measure a person's capacity for abstract reasoning, learning, and problem-solving in novel situations.

1939 (David Wechsler)

Developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), the most widely used IQ test worldwide for adults and older adolescents.

World War 1 & 2 (1914-1945)

Intelligence and personality testing became essential for military personnel selection and placement, cementing psychology's role as an applied science.

Culture

What differentiates one group or society from the next. (Note: Culture is not the same as society).

Goddard's Project on immigrants

Used Binet's testing; legacy was controversial. Biased translations and culturally unfamiliar content led to an overestimated mental deficiency of non-native English speakers.

What did Goddard's controversy spark?

The creation of culture-specific tests.

Culture-Specific Tests: Examples & Problem

Examples include the 1937 Stanford-Binet Revision and the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale. Problem: Misuse of these tests across different cultural groups remained.

Verbal Communication Requirements

Examiner and examinee must speak the same language. Test-taker must be able to read and comprehend instructions.

Verbal Communication: Risks

Translators may cause meaning loss, add hints, or alter difficulty. Dialect differences can still cause miscommunication. Non-primary language use can cause misunderstandings.

Non-Verbal Communication

Humans communicate via facial expressions, gestures, posture, and body movement. Meanings of non-verbal cues vary from culture to culture.

Non-Verbal Communication in Assessment

Positive body language creates a better impression. Evaluators may develop hypotheses from nonverbal behavior, but signs can be misinterpreted (e.g., reflecting physical discomfort).

What influences evaluation standards?

The assessor's own cultural background. Cultural norms shape what should and should not be considered.

Individualist values

Values individuality, independence, and uniqueness as individuals.

Collectivist values

Values interdependency, family, and harmony with the group.

Laws vs. Ethics

: Rules people must follow for the good of society; interpretation affects psychological testing.

: Go beyond laws, focusing on principles of right and proper conduct.

Standard of Care

Defined by a professional code of ethics, guiding psychologists to act reasonably and prudently under similar conditions.

Historical Context of Concerns (Post WWI)

Began after World War I when military tests were adapted for civilian use.

Historical Context of Concerns (1957 & 1960s-1970s)

Discomfort intensified with the launch of Sputnik (investing in gifted students). Debates grew over test fairness and bias and what intelligence tests truly measured.

Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)

Ensures fair testing for people with disabilities.

Civil Rights Act (1964, amended 1991)

Bans employment testing discrimination based on race, religion, sex, or national origin.

Family Education Rights and Privacy Act (1974) & HIPAA

FERPA: Protects student records. HIPAA: Protects medical and psychological data.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

Guarantees educational access and accommodations.

Court Cases: Discrimination/Test Bias

Hobson v. Hansen, Larry P. v. Riles, and Regents of UC v. Bakke addressed discrimination, test bias, and fairness.

Court Cases: Educational Access for Disabilities

PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1971) and Mills v. Board of Education of District of Columbia (1972).

Truth-in-testing laws (1980s onward)

Requires disclosure of test purposes, scoring methods, and procedures to ensure fairness and confidentiality.

Frye Standard (1923) vs. Daubert Standard (1993)

Frye: Scientific evidence is admissible if it has general acceptance. Daubert: Replaced Frye; Judges act as "gatekeepers," considering factors like testing, peer review, and error rates.

Test-User Qualification Levels (A, B, C)

Level : Basic tests, minimal technical knowledge.

Level : Requires technical knowledge in statistics, psychology, or measurement.

Level : Complex tests requiring advanced training and supervised experience.

Ethical Example: Death with Dignity

Evaluator balances patient's autonomy with responsibility to protect them from decisions influenced by mental illness rather than rational choice.

Informed Consent: Test Taker's Right

Right to know why they are being tested, how results will be used, and who will see the information. Must be explained in an understandable language.

Competency to Give Consent: Requirements

Must be able to: Decide whether to participate; Understand the facts; Think about and reason through the facts; Recognize the nature of the situation.

The Right to be Informed of Test Findings

Ethically and legally required to give clear, realistic feedback. Must share results, recommendations, and test limitations/possible errors in an understandable language.

The Right to Confidentiality: Key Terms

Privacy: Control over when, how, and what personal information is shared. Privilege: Legal protection from forced disclosure. Confidentiality: Keeping information private outside legal proceedings.

Limitations to Confidentiality & Key Case

May be broken to prevent harm (e.g., suicide, homicide). The saying "protective privilege ends where the public peril begins" is from the Tarasoff v. Regents case (1974).

The Right to Least Stigmatizing Label

Psychologists must use the least harmful or stigmatizing label possible because harsh labels can have long-term negative effects on a person's life.

Psychological Testing and Assessment.

I. What is Psychological Testing?

Projective Testing

Objective Testing

A structured process that uses standardized tools to assess a person's behaviors, emotions, and thoughts. Measures mental attributes like emotional functioning, intelligence, aptitude, and personality. Used to determine cause, intensity, and length of symptoms and guide treatment plan creation. Used to identify strengths/weaknesses and detect signs of psychological/neurological disorders. Often called "norm-referenced" tests.

Projective Testing

Assesses reactions to uncertain stimuli with the aim of discovering buried feelings and psychological conflicts.

Objective Testing

Involves answering questions with set responses like yes/no or true/false.

II. What is Psychological Assessment?

Tools and Sources Used

Goal and Use

A broader way of gathering and evaluating information regarding an individual's mental, emotional, and behavioral activity. It is a comprehensive process of collecting, integrating, and interpreting information about a person's psychological functioning.

Tools and Sources Used

Uses a range of approaches and multiple tools, including: observations, interviews, psychological tests, background records, surveys, self-report measures, medical records, and physiological measurements.

Goal and Use

To establish a clear comprehension and guide decisions or treatment. Used for diagnosis (e.g., learning disabilities, dementia) and to understand behavioral issues (e.g., anger management, anxiety).

1905 (France)

Contemporary psychological testing began with the test created by Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon. Purpose was to help place Paris schoolchildren with intellectual disabilities into appropriate classes, providing an objective and fair method.

Binet's Legacy

His work spread internationally, influencing U.S. schools and military screening during World Wars I and II. Testing expanded to assess intelligence, personality, brain function, and job performance.

William Stern

Developed the IQ scoring method. Warned against misusing tests as tools of oppression, emphasizing that testing should respect human dignity and serve individuals' needs.

Types of Psychological Tests

Standardization

Reliability

Validity

Ethics

Norms

Standardization

A test is made uniform or set to adhere to a specific standard. Involves administering and scoring the test in the same way for everyone. Important because it allows researchers to compare scores across time.

Reliability

Refers to the reproducibility or consistency of measurements. The degree to which an instrument yields the same results on repeated trials when the underlying thing being measured has not changed.