Social development: Parenting and families

What are the three ways researchers study parenting

Parent practices, Dimensions of parenting and parenting styles

What are parenting practices

specific aspects of parenting (e.g., spanking versus time out;problem-solving with child versus 'do as you told', etc.)

What are dimensions of parenting

dimensions of warmth/support and parental control which underly cross-situational practices

What are parenting styles

typological approach, characterising parents' general approach across different aspects of parenting

What are the three main types of parenting styles - Diana Baumrind (1973)

Authoritarian, Authoritative and Permissive

What scales measure parenting styles - Maccoby & Martin (1983)

- Warmth & Responsiveness- Control & Demandingness and how involved they are

What parenting style has high demands and low responsiveness and what is its focus

Authoritarian - focus on obedience punishment over discipline

What parenting style has high demands and high responsiveness and what is the focus

Authoritative - create positive relationship and enforces rules

What parenting style has low demands and high responsiveness and what is the focus

Permissive - Don't enforce rules

What parenting style has low demands and low responsiveness and what is the focus

Uninvolved - Provide little guidance nurturing or attention

Relationship between family style and teen behaviors - Steinberg et al. (1994)

6,900 followed over a two year period and measured parenting style by asking teenagers to respond to questions. Authoritative have highest school grace abate and lowest diligent behaviour. Uninvolved had lowest grade performance and highest delinquent behaviour.

Parenting styles and its impact on children - Sahithya et al.

Despite the hypothesised cultural differences between the West and India, the effect of parenting styles on children appeared to be similar across culture, and culture did not serve as a moderator for parenting style and child outcomes

What are externalizing and internalizing symptoms in children?

Externalizing: Aggression, hyperactivity, impulsivity, defiance, conduct problems, anti-social behavior

Internalizing: Anxiety, depression, social withdrawal, self-harm, somatic complaints

How do different parenting styles affect child symptoms?

Neglectful & authoritarian: Low parental warmth linked to elevated symptoms

Permissive: Lack of control may be offset by parental warmth

Authoritative: Generally associated with better outcomes

What role does age play in parenting effects?

Stronger effects on externalizing & internalizing symptoms in older children

No significant age effect for self-esteem

Weaker association between authoritarian parenting and academic achievement in older children

What role does ethnicity play in parenting effects?

No ethnic analysis for externalizing symptoms (~40% ethnic minority samples)

In internalizing symptoms, authoritative parenting effects are weaker in samples with higher ethnic minority percentages

In academic achievement, authoritative parenting effects are weaker in ethnic minority samples

Which ethnic groups reported higher levels of anxiety compared to Caucasians?

Malay

Chinese

Arab

Indian

Higher anxiety symptoms reported across all subscales

How is parenting related to adolescent anxiety across cultures?

Parental rejection is correlated with higher anxiety

This association is independent of cultural background

What cultural factors may influence adolescent anxiety beyond parenting?

Individualism vs. collectivism

Cognitive schemas

Gender role identification

What are examples of externalizing symptoms?

Aggression, conduct problems, hyperactivity, impulsivity, defiance, and anti-social behavior.

What are examples of internalizing symptoms?

Anxiety, depression, social withdrawal, self-harm, and somatic complaints.

Why might neglectful and authoritarian parenting styles lead to elevated symptoms?

Both are characterized by low parental warmth, which may explain the observed effects.

How does permissive parenting relate to internalizing symptoms and self-esteem?

No significant associations were found, possibly due to a balance between lack of behavioral control and parental warmth.

How does age moderate the effects of parenting style?

Greater effects on externalizing and internalizing symptoms in older samples; weaker association between authoritarian parenting and academic achievement in older samples.

How does ethnicity moderate the effects of authoritative parenting on internalizing symptoms?

The positive association with internalizing symptoms became weaker in samples with a higher percentage of ethnic minorities.

How does ethnicity moderate the effects of authoritative parenting on academic achievement?

The positive association with academic achievement was weaker in samples with more ethnic minority participants.

What does Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Approach emphasize?

Child development happens within multiple interacting systems, not in isolation.

What are two child-specific factors in development?

Genetics and temperament.

What are examples of proximal systems in a child's development?

Family and friends.

What are examples of distal systems in a child's development?

Health services, school curriculum, and culture.

Do parents operate within the same systems as children?

Yes, parents also interact within these ecological systems.

What is the Microsystem in Bronfenbrenner's model?

The child's immediate environment, such as family, school, neighborhood, and peer group.

What is the Mesosystem in Bronfenbrenner's model?

The connections between the child's immediate environments, like home and school or home and peer group.

What is the Exosystem in Bronfenbrenner's model?

External settings that indirectly impact the child, such as parents' workplaces, media, and healthcare services.

What is the Macrosystem in Bronfenbrenner's model?

The broader cultural and societal context, including economic and political systems.

What is the Chronosystem in Bronfenbrenner's model?

The influence of life events, transitions, and historical conditions on development.

How does the Ecological Systems Approach expand our understanding of development?

It highlights the interactions between individuals, their environment, and broader societal influences.

What is the key idea of Jay Belsky's (1981) Systems Model of Family Functioning?

Family relationships are bi-directional, meaning that parenting influences child behavior, and child behavior influences parenting.

How does infant behavior influence parenting according to Jay Belsky's (1981)?

The way parents respond to their child can shape the child's development and behavior over time.

What role does the marital relationship play in parenting according to Jay Belsky's (1981)?

A stressful marital relationship can negatively impact parenting, leading to inconsistencies in discipline and child-rearing approaches.

How can a child's difficult behavior affect the parents' relationship according to Jay Belsky's (1981)?

It can create disagreements between parents about how to handle the behavior, increasing marital stress.

Why is it important to recognize parenting and child development as part of a system Jay Belsky's (1981)?

Because they do not exist in isolation—family relationships, stress, and parenting all interact and influence one another.

Why is the family considered a broader system?

It includes not just parents and children but also siblings, grandparents, and other family members who interact and influence child development.

How do different family members interact with one another?

They may have unique relationships, and the child is aware of these interactions, both direct and indirect.

What are direct influences in a family system?

The child's individual relationships with family members, such as with parents, siblings, and grandparents.

What are indirect influences in a family system?

The child observes how family members interact with one another, such as how parents relate to siblings or how siblings interact.

How do family relationships influence a child's development?

They shape the child's self-esteem, their perception of their role within the family, and their emotional well-being.

Why is it too simplistic to only focus on the parent-child relationship?

Because parenting and child development do not exist in isolation—many family dynamics and external factors influence outcomes in children.

What does Conger et al.'s (1992) model examine?

How economic hardship impacts family functioning, parenting, and adolescent development.

What are signs of high economic pressure in a family? - Conger et al.'s (1992) model

Inability to meet material needs, Falling behind on debts and Cutting back on everyday expenses

How does financial stress impact parents emotionally? - Conger et al.'s (1992) model

It can lead to depression, demoralization, pessimism, and emotional instability.

What is the key mechanism linking financial stress to parenting and child outcomes? - Conger et al.'s (1992) model

Depressed mood in parents disrupts marital and parental behaviors.

How does economic hardship affect parenting behaviors? - Conger et al.'s (1992) model

Parents may become less sensitive, less emotionally available, and struggle to meet their child's needs.

How does stress impact the parental relationship? - Conger et al.'s (1992) model

Both parents may be highly stressed and in a low mood, which can strain their relationship.

What does Conger et al.'s (1992) model have in common with Bronfenbrenner's theory?

It highlights external influences (e.g., economic hardship) on child development.

What does Conger et al.'s model explain about the impact of financial stress on children?

It disrupts parenting, leading to better or worse child outcomes depending on how parents respond.

How is low socioeconomic status (SES) associated with parenting style?

It is linked to more authoritarian parenting.

Why might low SES parents use more authoritarian parenting?

High stress reduces their capacity to consider the child's needs.

More punitive, strict discipline might seem like a faster way to ensure compliance.

What did Zussman (1980) study about parenting and distraction?

He observed 40 parents (20 mothers, 20 fathers) interacting with their children in a lab setting under two conditions:

Free play for 10 minutes.

A cognitively demanding task (anagrams) while interacting with their child.

How did distraction affect parenting in Zussman's study?

Parents became less warm and more negative toward one child. They became more controlling and less sensitive overall.

What does Zussman's (1980) study suggest about stress and parenting?

Stress and distraction interfere with parents' ability to engage sensitively with their children.

How can poor parental mental health affect parenting?

It can reduce availability and sensitivity, which may negatively impact child development.

What did Hay et al. (2010) study about postnatal depression and child outcomes?

They followed children of mothers who had postnatal depression and assessed them at age 11. Children of depressed mothers had more problems in numeracy. They were more likely to have special educational needs. They showed higher levels of conduct and externalizing problems. Parental availability and sensitivity play a crucial role in shaping children's development.

What does research say about the impact of parental divorce on child development?

It can be stressful for children, leading to adverse developmental outcomes in the short term.

Over time, a strong parent-child relationship can help override these initial stresses.

How can divorce or separation affect children's behavior and education?

It can place children at greater risk for behavior problems.

It may impact academic achievement, though most children adjust well over time.

What factors help children adjust better after parental separation?

Quality of the parent-child relationship post-separation.

Consistent and meaningful contact with both parents.

What does research say about children raised by same-sex parents?

Development is not determined by whether parents are heterosexual or homosexual.

Quality of family relationships matters more than family structure.

What additional challenges might children of same-sex parents face?

They may experience stigma from society.

However, a strong, supportive family environment can help mitigate this.

What is the key factor in positive child development, regardless of family structure?

The quality of relationships within the family is what truly matters for development.