Conservation of biodiversity (The Living Environment)

Biodiversity

Variety of plant or animal life in a particular habitat or across the world

Recourses

Products obtained from nature including wood, fibres, oils, food

New food recourses/species

Finding new sources of nutrition from plants and animals that have commercial cultivation potential

Eg. The potato bean of North America has a high protein content

Biomimetics

Taking inspiration from nature to design and manufacture products.

Eg 1: Shark skin has scales that reduce friction while swimming, this has been copied in aircraft designs and ship surface coatings to reduce fuel consumption.

Eg:2 Bird wing bones are light and strong and hollow with internal struts preventing breakage/bending which has been used for bridges and roofs

Why is biodiversity important for medicine

We can obtain medicinal chemicals from plants, animals or fungi

Eg1: poppies are cultivated to produce painkillers, morphine and codeine

Eg 2: Aspirin was extracted from the bark of willow trees and is now manufactured synthetically

Physiological research

Studying organisms to understand human health problems

Eg 1: marsupials give birth to their young at very early stages of development which then develop in their mothers pouch. These are easier to study than a human baby of the same age and has helped in understanding developmental problems in unborn babies.

Eg 2: armadillos are among the few animals that can catch the bacterial disease leprosy and are used in the study of the disease including vaccine production.

Pest control

Using species to control pests in agricultural systems

Eg 1: Encarsia Formosa is a parasitic wasp released into greenhouses to control whitefly pests on crops such as tomatoes

Eg 2: Cactoblastis moth was introduced from South America to control the prickly pear cactus after its into to Australia

Genetic resources

Valuable genes in wild species for improving domestic crops and livestock

Eg 1: Oil palm yields have been increased by 25% by cross-breeding with wild varieties found in central Africa

Eg 2: Sugar cane has been protected from the sugar cane mosaic virus by cross breeding with another variety from Indonesia

Ecosystem services

Benefits provided by nature including atmospheric composition, bio geochemical cycles, soil maintenance, Inter species relationships, and aesthetic/ethical provisions

Eg 1: All heterotrophs rely on other organisms as a source of energy and nutrients

Eg 2: evapotranspiration from vegetation produces a large amount of the water vapour that forms clouds, controls surface temps, and increases precipitation

Direct exploitation

Using organisms for food, materials, pets, entertainment

Eg 1: crocodiles and alligators used to make leather bags and shoes

Eg 2: Tiger claws, tails, dung, brsin and whiskers are believed to treat skin diseases, alcoholism, laziness and toothache

Indirect exploitation

Threatening organism by depleting their resources Eg. Food

Eradication of predators and competitors

Culling species that interfere with human activities

Eg 1: pathogen vectors such as malaria mosquitoes

Eg 2: predators of livestock such as wolves, pumas and birds of prey

Ecosystem engineers

Species that drastically alter the environment

Eg 1: beavers that build dams creating small lakes which are colonised by many aquatic species

Habitat destruction

Destroying habitats through deforestation, ploughing, urban expansion, reservoir creation

Biotic factors

Living factors such as pollinators, seed dispersal species, food chain impacts

Eg 1: elephants disperse seeds of tree species large distances because they aren’t ruminants and don’t chew the seeds

Eg 2: plants rely on their pollen being transported between their flowers if these insects died out they wouldn’t be able to reproduce

Abiotic factor

Non living factor such as water availability, dissolved oxygen, temperature, water turbidity and physical damage

Eg 1: water turbidity from mining reduced light penetration preventing submerged aquatic plants from photosynthesising

Eg 2: hydroelectric power schemes may cause sudden changes in water levels that flood nests, killing eggs

How can changing temperature affect enzymes

May cause them to denature and stop working

Eutrophication

Increase in nutrients causing algal blooms and oxygen depletion in water

pH change

Altering the acidity/alkalinity of the environment

Turbid water

Couldn’t water due to sediment or pollutant

Physical damage

Harm caused by discarded rubbish, plastics, fishing gear, litter

Trophic cascade

Changes in food chains that lead to changes in predator/prey populations

Introduced species

Non native species introduced into a new area

Eg 1: grey squirrel introduced to the UK from USA which outcompeted the red squirrel as it’s better adapted to exploit food such as it can digest acorns from oaks

Eg 2: ground nesting birds on oceanic islands such as New Zealand are threatened by introduction of cats rats

Hybridisation

Mating between introduced and native species threatening purebred populations eg. Wildcat population in Scotland threatened by domestic cats

Conservation

Efforts to prevent harm/damage to the environment and species

Setting conservation priorities

Process of deciding which species to prioritise for protection

IUCN

International Union for the Conservation of Nature they coordinate global data on biodiversity conservation

Red list

Categorisation of species based on vulnerability to extinction

Extinct- no known individuals remain

Extinct in the wild- only survive in captivity

Critically endangered- extremely high risk of extinction in the wild

Endangered- high risk of extinction in the wild

Vulnerable- high risk of becoming endangered

Near threatened- likely to become endangered in the near future

Least concern- lowest risk of becoming endangered

Data deficient- insufficient info for catsgorisation

Keystone species

Species crucial for the habitat as they support other organisms maintaining the ecological structure of a community eg. African forest elephants keep paths open spread seeds and keep water holes open

EDGE species

Evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered species eg. Pigmy hippo

Endemic species

Not found in any other area eg. Red ruffed lemur

Flagship species

Species with a large public awareness and following eg. Giant pandas attract support by being cute

Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981)

UK law protecting British wildlife and habitats covering:

Designated areas eg. SITES/MCZ

Restrictions on activities within and outside of the protected area

Sites of special scientific interest (SSSI)

Protected areas with valuable flora, fauna, or geological structures

National Nature Reserve (NNR)

Protected areas for valuable species, habitats, and geological structures

Special Area of Conservation (SAC)

Protected areas for species and habitats of international importance

Special Protection Area (SPA)

Protected areas for endangered bird species and their habitats

Natura 2000 sites

Coordinated designated areas conserving Europe's endangered habitats and species

Ramsar sites

Protected wetlands of international significance

Marine nature reserve (MNR)

Protected marine areas with restrictions on resource extraction

Local Nature Reserve (LNR)

Protecting areas supporting local habitats and species

marine protected area (MPA)

Legally protected and managed ocean area for nature conservation

Marine Conservation Zone

Protected marine areas conserving rare or threatened species and habitats

CITES

Convention on international trade of endangered species

Appendix 1: trade ban for most vulnerable species eg. All big cats and rhinos

Appendix 2: trade regulation for species at risk of extinction eg. Great white shark

Sustainable exploitation

Harvesting resources without depleting their populations

International Whaling Commission

Manages and bans commercial whaling through designation of whale sanctuaries, protection of suckling mothers and calves,

Common fisheries policy

Fishing regulations in the EU covering

Catch quotas, size limits, net mesh size regulations allowing smaller fish to escape grow and breed

International tropical timber organisation

Focuses on sustainable management of tropical timber

Captive breeding

Breeding animals in controlled environments considering factors such as condition a for breeding, population interactions, breeding success, breeding habitat, gene pool size

Eg 1: flamingoes need crowds in order to breed so mirrors are installed to create the illusion

Eg 2: some birds mate for life while others don’t and mixing the two could create conflict and reduce egg/chick survival

Ex situ conservation

Conservation outside of the natural habitat

In-situ conservation

Conservation within the natural habitat

Stud books

Records breeding individuals and their ancestry for genetic diversity

Cryopreservation

Freezing embryos, semen, and eggs for future breeding

Artificial insemination

Injecting semantic into a female organism for fertilisation

Embryo transfer

Implanting fertilised embryos into surrogate mothers

Cloning

Creating genetically identical individuals could be used to produce from species that don’t currently breed eg. Northman white rhino

Hard release

Releasing organisms into the wild with little/no human support where they don’t need to learn survival skills eg. Insects/fish

Soft release

Releasing organisms with ongoing support Such as gradual release with food provision until skills are learned to combat problems of recognising food/predators, hunting skills, being accepted into wild populations

Eg. Red Kites were released with radio tags to monitor post release movements

Seed banks

Storing seeds for future plant conservation eg. The millennium Swedbank in Sussex that collects worldwide species having around 10,000 of each to ensure a diverse gene pool

Agri-environmental schemes

Voluntary government schemes promoting sustainable farming practices to conserve wildlife, promote public education, promote natural resources. Individual features can increase farmers income such as beetle banks, hedgerow, low input grasslands- protect wildflowers, higher payments for restoration of wetlands, public access, wildflower rush grass field margins

Habitat creation

Unintentional eg. Creating reserviors that flood and create wetlands

Intentional eg. Hedgerows

Biome

A large, distinct ecological area with specific climate and vegetation, influencing the distribution of biodiversity in a region

Antarctica

Polar landmass at the South Pole surrounded be ocean m

Ecosystem

All of the biotic and abiotic factors in an environment and the interactions between them

Antarcticas features

Albedo is high and covers almost 99% of Antarctica's surface, Very little precipitation, resulting in limited terrestrial life, 24h sunlight in summer and 24h darkness in winter, nutrients in the food chain come from upwelling’s,

Upwellings

Bring up cold, nutrient-dense water from the deep ocean

Temp buffer

High albedo surfaces reflect UV away from Earth

Permafrost in Antarctica

Huge carbon store, potential release of greenhouse gases

Valuable recourse in Antarctica

Crude oil can be found beneath

What does GRACE do in Antarctica

Measure ice cover with gravitational pull because the mass of the ice has a gravitational pull. Higher mass= higher gravitational pull

Bycatch

Accidental catch caught alongside the expected catch when fishing

Antarctica threats

Causing ice sheet breakup, sea level rise, glacial movement, reduced snow cover, ozone depletion, future mineral exploitation

Conservation efforts Antarctica

The Antarctic treaty 1957- Agreement signed by 52 countries to protect Antarctica, covers fishing, mineral extraction, waste, and tourism

Control of tourism - have to be accompanied by trained guides, must wear protective clothing to prevent pathogen introduction

Habitat design

Abiotic and biotic features planned to maximise species support such as habitat area, biological corridors, habitat shape, habitat diversity, light levels, water depth, vegetation age structure

Eg 1: bio corridors link isolated areas of the same habitat allowing mixing different populations and gene pools reducing inbreeding

Eg 2: light levels - shading of tree cover inhibits woodland floor plant growth which can be reduced by selectively felling creating light for smaller plants

Temperate broadleaf woodland

Deciduous woodland found in the northern hemisphere

Deciduous trees

Trees that lose their leaves every year, such as oak

Temperate broadleaf woodland ecological features

No major temperature extremes, no distinctive dry season, deep fertile soils, and four distinct seasons.

Stable habitat

A habitat resistant to change

Importance of temperate broadleaf woodland

High biodiversity, woodland resources, recreation, hydrological cycle, carbon sequestration

Threats of temperate broadleaf woodland Mz

Woodland clearance for alternative land use such as farmland, urban development, mineral exctraction, habitat fragmentation where clearance will leave remaining isolated areas that become more vulnerable

Ancient woodland

Woodland that is more than 400 years old and has a high biodiversity, requiring extra legal protection

Conservation efforts for temperate broadleaf woodlands

Management techniques:

Historical methods- coppicing, pollarding Modern methods- community forests, monoculture plantations, Conservation management- coppicing to create habitats, creating clearings to increase habitat diversity

Legal protection of ancient woodland

Designated protected areas- Sherwood forest national nature reserve

Planting new woodlands

Tropical rainforests

Ecosystems found in equatorial regions with high light levels, warm temperatures, high rainfall, and humidity

Primary productivity

The rate at which energy is converted by photosynthesis in an ecosystem

Defence mechanisms

Adaptations developed by plants and animals to protect themselves from predators/competitors, such as chemical defenses.

Crop wild relatives (CWRs)

Wild plant species related to domesticated crops, important for genetic diversity and crop improvement. Can be used for genetic modification of domestic crops

Ecological features of tropical rainforests

Sunlight more intense than anywhere else so photosynthesis all year creating lots of plant growth and sugar, no winter means colonies aren’t killed off each year, you have to be a specialist to survive and plants vs animals create adaptions increasing variety/biodiversity

Importance of tropical rainforests

High biodiversity increases the chances of finding species useful to humans eg. New food species, medical discoveries, biomimetic applications, carbon sequestration by photosynthesising organisms

Threats of tropical rainforests

Fuelwood collection, timber harvesting -mahogany transported and used for furniture, clearance for alternative land use eg subsistence agriculture/commercial agriculture, mineral extraction, reservoirs, climate change, tourism

Conservation efforts for tropical rainforests

In Belize the Rio bravo conservation and management area has provided alternative income opportunities with ecotourism reducing threats, debt for nature swaps eg. The WWF has organised this for Costa Rica and the Philippines

Shallow coral reefs ecological features

Coral reefs found in equatorial regions along the coastline, they have nematocysts which are stinging cells found in cnidarians, used by corals to kill plankton. They have symbiotic algae which are zooxanthellae algae living inside coral cells, providing sugars through photosynthesis, they have cilia which are tiny hair-like extensions that help corals manipulate water flow and obtain nutrients from the water

Deep water coral reefs

Coral reefs found on seabeds across the globe, in dark and cold waters

Phylum Cnidaria

Classification group that includes corals, characterised by stinging cells and soft bodies.

Classification hierarchy

System of classification from largest category to smallest: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.

Photic zone

Depth at which light can penetrate the water

Aphotic zone

Depth below the photic zone where light cannot penetrate the water, unsuitable for corals.

Coral bleaching

Stress response in corals caused by changes in abiotic factors, leading to the loss of zooxanthellae and bright coloring

Carbon sink

System that absorbs and stores carbon, such as coral reefs with their calcium carbonate exoskeletons.

Ocean acidification

Increase in ocean acidity due to higher carbon dioxide levels, making it difficult for corals to form exoskeletons

Tropical coral reefs importance

They support over ¼ of marine species, acting as fisheries for fish and crustaceans, medicinal value from species producing chemicals for defence eg. Chemicals from Caribbean sponge can treat HIV and leukaemia, erosion protection by absorbing energy from waves that would otherwise erode the coast , ecotourism activities