Aggression - spec

Define aggression

All behaviour that is intended to inflict physical or psychological harm on another individual who does not want to be treated so

Describe role of limbic system in aggression

network of structures buried deep in the brain, composed of hypothalamus + amygdala

linked to emotional responses such as aggression

amygdala responds to environmental stress - its reactivity is an important indicator of aggressive behaviour

hypothalamus responsible for initiating flight or flight response which is linked to aggressive behaviour

Role of limbic system AO3

Matthews et al (2006) - computer games - used fMRIs to measure brain function following playing violent/non-violent games - violent games showed increased activity in amygdala - scientific, controlled lab exp

Phineas Gage - case study - damaged left frontal lobe - link between amygdala and prefrontal cortex severed = lost rationality

Describe role of serotonin in aggression

Neurotransmitters that has inhibitory effect so is calming - slows down neural activity - those with reduced serotonin may have reduced self-control, leading to impulse + therefore aggressive behaviour

Evaluate role of serotonin in aggression

Virkkunen and Linnoila (1992) - cerebral spinal fluid - found products of serotonin breakdown to be significantly lower in impulsive offenders, suggesting they had lower serotonin levels

Man et al - weight loss drug - ppts given medication for WL which also happened to reduce serotonin levels + found that male participants became more aggressive

Describe the role of testosterone in aggression

Males generally more aggressive than females so attention has focused on hormone testosterone which is naturally higher in males

Testosterone promotes status-seeking/social dominance motives which is linked to assertive/violent behaviour

Evaluate role of testosterone in aggression

Wagner et al - mice - when chemically castrated mice, they became docile + when increased testosterone they became more aggressive BUT issues with generalising from animals to humans (as humans may be more aggressive due to environmental stimuli)

outline genetic factors in aggression

Assume aggressive behaviour is the result of inherited traits/characteristics that have adapted across generations because of their evolutionary advantage

Describe the role of MAOA gene in aggression

Produces an enzyme with role to ‘mop up’ neurotransmitters in synapse after nerve impulse transmitted - breaks down serotonin + helps with its reuptake

Low levels of MAOA enzyme = lows levels of serotonin as less is reabsorbed into neurone leading to aggressive behaviour

Evaluate role of MAOA gene

Bruner et al (1993) - Dutch family of abnormally violent criminals - had abnormally low levels of MAOA gene

Frazzetto eg al (2007) - MAOA must have trauma - argued that the MAOA gene is only active when significant trauma is experienced during the first 15 years of life

Outline how concordance rates can be used in investigating psychological traits

MZ twins share 100% of DNA + provide control sample for each other, but can also be compared to DZ twins

Adoption studies are used to investigate genetic factors in aggression as they may highlight differences between biological + adoptive parents and their children - can isolate environment child lives in as cause for behaviour

Give a study into concordance rates in aggression

Rhee + Waldman (2002) - meta analysis of adoption studies - found genetic influences accounted for 41% of variance in aggression

Evaluate the biological explanation of aggression

+ve - practical applications to benefit society - eg, give antidepressants (SSRIs) to prisoners may reduce aggression

+ve - benefit to economy - if can identify people before they commit a violent crime, means less people in prison so less money needed from taxpayers

-ve - strongly on nature side of nature vs nurture debate - reduces complex behaviour to its simplest (anatomical/biochemical) form so is reductionist, ignores gene-environment interaction + exhibits biological determinism

-ve - contrasting approaches with evidence - SLT (behavioural/environment/learning from others/experience)

What is ethology?

The study of animal + human behaviour in terms of traits, characteristics and rituals which have adapted to be useful for survival

What does the ethological explanation suggest about aggression?

It is an evolutionary process designed to minimise conflict and spread resources around the group - ritualistic behaviours are designed to deter competition

Why is no actual harm done to each animal in aggression in animals?

Because death is damaging to the species survival, so threat (eg, baring teeth growling) is only implied

Define an innate releasing mechanism

A built in physiological process or structure triggered by a specific environmental stimulus

Define a fixed action pattern

A specific sequence of behaviours released by an innate releasing mechanisms

Give 4 features of a fixed action pattern

Universal (in every individual of a species), unaffected by learning, ballistic (once triggered it runs its course), single purpose

AO3 ethological explanation - points

+ve - research into IRMa and FAPs by Tinbergen (1951) - red fish

-ve - cannot account for cultural differences in aggression

-ve - cannot be used to generalise to human aggression

Why can’t the ethological explanation account for cultural differences in aggression?

If aggression is innate, should account for aggression in all cultures

BUT research found white South Americans were more aggressive when insulted than white North Americans - further supported by differing homicide rates in these 2 regions

Shows that aggression differs from one culture to next - theory lacks internal validity

Why can’t the ethological explanation be used to generalise to humans?

Much research is carried out on non-primates (eg, fish) and results cannot be extrapolated to humans

Humans are more complex + their aggression may be a result of wide socio-economic triggers (eg, poverty) which is not replicated in animals

SLT would argue aggression is learnt (we don’t have FAPs)

What does evolutionary explanation suggest?

Aggression is the result of sexual competition, and is an inbuilt tendency for violence that is part of our basic nature

What has research suggested about gender differences in types of jealousy and why might this be the case?

Males are more prone to sexual jealousy than females but females more concerned about emotional infidelity

Can be explained by paternity uncertainty - sexual jealousy may be adaptive in that it may ensure a male is able to protect his genetic line

Give the evolutionary advantage of infidelity for males and females

Males - spreading genes via more offspring

Females - secure a mate with the best resource potential

What are the evolutionary disadvantages of infidelity and how do males prevent this from occurring?

Cuckoldry and diverting resources from own offspring

Mate guarding strategies - controlling, domestic violence, lavishing with lots of resources

AO3 evolutionary explanation - points

+ve - sexual vs emotional jealousy evidence - accounts for gender differences

-ve - assumption that women are not aggressive is deterministic - results in disapproval of aggression by females

Outline a study on the physical effects of computer games on aggression

assigned adolescents to play either violent or no violent computer game for 30 mins - fMRI immediately after showed increased activity in the amygdala + decreased activity in prefrontal lobe in those who played violent games

amygdala stimulates emotions, prefrontal regulates self control

Outline the effects of computer games on aggression

Desensitisation - playing lots over time means decreased emotional and physiological (FoF) response

Player in computer games take more active role compared to passive TV

Game playing more directly rewarded for player (operant conditioning)

Outline a study on the behavioural effects of computer games on aggression

Anderson + Bushman (2001)

Meta analysis, found that short term exposure to video game violence was significantly correlated with temporary increases in aggression in all participants

AO3 computer games - points

-ve - uncertainty on effects of long-term exposure (most research on short term)

-ve - difficulty distinguishing between ‘violent’ and ‘non-violent’ games - frustration vs excitement

-ve - ethical implications - social sensitivity

Why is there uncertainty on the effects of long-term exposure to computer games on aggression?

Lots of research suggests potential short term negative effects BUT less research into effects of long term exposure

Some research suggests potential benefits, so widespread concern around computer game use may be misplaced

Further longitudinal research required - with large, more randomly selected samples to investigate further

Why is there difficulty distinguishing between ‘violent’ and ‘non-violent’ games?

Many studies use games across conditions that aren’t particularly different - what constitutes violence is debatable and unclear in these studies

Frustration and excitement - violence may not be sole factor leading to aggression

Why is studying effects of computer games a socially sensitive toptic?

Researchers must be aware of how their findings will be interpreted in the media as the issue of computer game consumption and aggression has been popular topic for decades - results must be published in ways which are impartial, objective + fair

Give the 3 social psychological explanations of aggression in humans

Frustration-aggression hypothesis, social learning theory, deindividuation

Frustration-aggression hypothesis - AO1

Based on psychodynamic approach

Dollard et al (1939) argued that aggression is always a consequence of frustration, and the existence of frustration always leads to some form of aggression

Frustration - occurs when something blocks your attempts to reach a goal

Aggressive behaviour is cathartic (provides psychological relief) and can be directed at the cause of inteference/be displaced

Not always expressed directly we cause may be too abstract, powerful or unavailable - may be displaced onto an alternative, weaker source

Frustration-aggression hypothesis - AO3

+ve - Barker et al - children + toys - children who had been restrained from playing (ie had to just look at them) with a roomful of attractive toys behaved destructively compared to a control group

+ve - Green - jigsaw + electric shocks - male university students who had a confederate insult them as they failed to solve puzzle/made them ran out of time on task gave stronger shocks than a non-frustrated control

-ve - frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression - original hypothesis was an overstatement (too simplistic) - may be other contributing factors to aggression eg, genetics, hormones or SLT

Social learning theory - AO1

combines behaviourism and cognitive approach

Bandura (1965) claimed aggressive behaviour is learnt either through direct experience or by observing others

Direct learning - positive or negative reinforcement, punishment

Vicarious learning (observing others) - positive or negative reinforcement, punishment

4 mediational processes ie, cognitive conditions to learn something - ARRM

3 sources of influence include family members, media, sub-cultures

Social learning theory - AO3

+ve - Bandura, Ross + Ross (1965) - 66 children aged 3-6 put in groups for 10 mins - all watched film where adult kicked and punched a Bobo doll - saw adult either being rewarded, punished or no consequence - those who saw being rewarded behaved most aggressively towards Bobo doll

+ve - evidence for B, R + R - Patterson found aggressive children are raised in homes of high aggression, little affection + little positive feedback - suggests wider academic credibility for important role played by parents when developing behaviour

-ve - based on lab research - lacks ecological validity - Bobo doll study in artificial enviroment (was designed to be hit) - May be over simplistic as ignores individual differences in children and role of hormones eg, testosterone

Deindividuation theory - AO1

First proposed by Le Bon to explain behaviour of individuals in crowds

Refers to when individuals lose their personal identity

Factors contributing: darkness, anonymity, alcohol/drugs, large crowds

Private self-awareness - how we pay attention to our own feelings + behaviour - in a crowd, this is reduced

Public self-awareness - how we care what others think of our behaviour - also reduced in a crowd as we become less accountable

Deindividuation theory - AO3

+ve - research support - Dodd - asked 229 undergrad psychology students ‘If you could do anything possible with complete assurance you would not be held responsible, what would you do?’ - anonymous responses - 86% involved antisocial behaviour - suggests a link between anonymity and aggression

+ve - Zimbardo’s SPE - guards deindividuated + aggressive BUT prisoners deindividuated but NO aggression (instead obedient) - suggests if deindividuated role happens to be antisocial, this leads to aggression

-ve - Deindividuation doesn’t always lead to aggression - eg, Mecca, very peaceful + large crowd wearing identical clothing - may be conformity or circumstances with antisocial behaviour that lead to aggression - theory cannot explain this on its own

What is cognitive priming in relation to media influences on aggression?

mental process involving learning of scripts or schemas on how to behave aggressively in specific situations, which are automatically retrieved when triggered by environmental cues (stored in our memory) - exposure to violent media such as films, TV and computer games enhances the learning of these aggressive scripts

What is desensitisation in relation to media influences on aggression?

repeated viewing of aggressive media leads to a reduction in anxiety and physiological arousal eg, low HR - viewers become less sympathetic to victims

What is disinhibition in relation to media influences on aggression?

Exposure to media violence weakens the social norms that usually inhabit aggressive behaviours, making sure such behaviours appear more acceptable and likely to be enacted - behaviour is normalised, especially if aggression is portrayed as justified

Give 3 evaluations of media influences on aggression

Practical applications, evidence for cognitive priming (hockey + walkie talkie), political difficulties with research

Give the practical applications of media influences on aggression

To reduce aggressive acts - less frequent exposure and more unrealistic violent scenarios reduces likelihood of aggression seen in media being replicated in real life

Or add punishment for violence into ‘scripts’ so aggression less desirable

Give research evidence for cognitive priming

Josephson, hockey + walkie talkies

Players were deliberately frustrated then shown violent or non-violent films where an actor held a walkie talkie

In a subsequent hockey game, boys who saw violent films + had referee holding a walkie talkie behaved most violently

Give the political research difficulties of media influences on aggression

This area of research is heavily influenced by political desires to blame TV for all kinds of social problems - easier to blame ‘video nasties’ that attribute blame to other factors such as education level, family or poverty

Also publication bias for ‘positive’ findings between violent media and violent effects

Define institutional aggression

Aggression that occurs within an organisation which has its own social roles and where behaviour is under the control of staff and often motivated by social forces

Outline the situational model of institutional aggression

Proposes that the prison environment or institution must play a part in the level of aggression exhibited by prisoners

Factors include: organisational (management/policies), physical (security level, resources available), staff characteristics (gender, level of experience)

What does the deprivation theory propose about aggression in prisons?

Deprivation experienced by inmates affects their ability to maintain and form healthy relationships with people outside the prison

Describe Sykes (1958) study into aggression in prisons

Outlined some of the pains inmates experienced as 5 deprivations:

1. Liberty - no longer trusted to live in free world

2. Autonomy - no power, very few choices

3. Goods and services - sense of despair, boredom

4. Heterosexual relationships - leads to low self-worth

5. Security - fears for own safety, sense of threat

Outline the dispositional model of aggression in prisons

Assumes people are individuals with specific personality traits, skills, attitudes and beliefs - such aspects influence their subsequent behaviour in prison as offenders ‘import’ their personality from outside

Eg, if individual enters with history of violence and abusive behaviour, this will be seen inside prison ie, they are adhering to personal norms

Who proposed the dispositional/importation model of aggression?

Irwin and Cressey (1962)

Give 3 evaluations of the situational model of institutional aggression

Practical applications, evidence from Zimbardo’s SPE, doesn’t explain why all prisoners aren’t aggressive

Give the practical applications of the situational model of aggression

Implies that if the flaws of the prison environment (such as overcrowding) can be dealt with, this can reduce aggression and therefore reduce the negative impacts of imprisonment on prisoners = better rehabilitation

Give evidence from Zimbardo’s SPE as evaluation for situational model of institutional aggression

Prisoners rebelled due to loss of freedom, very cramped conditions, loss of autonomy etc - suggests that their enviroment caused their aggressive behaviour

Give 2 evaluations of the dispositional model of institutional aggression

Gaes et al (1988) - Hispanic origins, most research on male prisoners

Describe Gaes et al (1988)

Studies 82,000 US prisoners, found those with Hispanic origins were more violent than those with non-Hispanic origins - supports view that culture and ethnicity are factors that contribute to aggression

Describe how most research being done on male prisoners is a limitation dispositional explanation of institutional aggression

Androcentric to assume the same reasons for male violence can explain female violence too (beta bias) - there may be others factors in female prison aggression