Openstax Psychology Chapter 3

Glial Cell

cell in the nervous system that: plays a role in formation of myelin and blood brain barrier, responds to injury, removes debris, enhances learning and memory

Neuronal Membrane

covers entire cell and separates the inside from the outside environment

Dendrite

receiving end of the neuron

Cell Body

soma/central area; maintains cell's vital functions

Axon

extends from cell body, sends messages to other neurons (messages go one-way only)

Axon Terminal

end of axon; where neurotransmitter production and release happens

Brain-communication

electro-chemical

Synaptic Vesicles

small capsules that make neurotransmitter and release into the synaptic cleft

Pre-synaptic Membrane

semi-permeable covering on the end of the axon terminal

Synaptic Cleft

small space between axon and dendrite

Post-synaptic Membrane

semi-permeable covering on the end of the dendrite

Myelin

fat covering on axon

Chemical Messengers

Neurotransmitters

Serotonin

happy mood

Dopamine

motor function and rewarding feeling

Acetylcholine

muscle control and cortical (cortex) arousal

Anadamide

pain reduction, increase appetite

Norepinephrine

mood, hunger, sleep, adrenaline

GABA

inhibitory

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

Glutamate

information and learning

Localizatio of Function

researcher's attempts to identify the function of each individual brain area (but areas likely work together to produce our perceptions)

Forebrain (including cerebral cortex)

the site of most of the brain's conscious functions

Corpus Callosum

bundle of nerve fibers connecting the cerebrum's two hemispheres

Thalamus

area that relays nerve signals to the cerebral cortex; sensory gateway

Hypothalamus

control the body's endocrine, or hormone-producing, system (controls emotions)

Cerebellum

regulates balance and body control; balance and coordination

Brain Stem

regulates control of involuntary functions, breathing, heart rate

Frontal Lobe

motorfunction, language, memory, and executive function

Motor Cortex

voluntary movement

Prefrontal Cortex

thinking, planning, language, etc.

Broca's Area

language production

Parietal Lobe

somatosensory cortex: touch, pressure, pain information; spatial perception; object shape/orientation; integrates vision and touch input w/ motor output

Temporal Lobe

hearing, understanding language, autobiographical memories

Wernicke's Area

understanding speech

Occipital Lobe

visual cortex: vision

The Limbic System

emotional center

Amygdala

threat sensor (sometimes hippocampus)

Midbrain

contains limbic system

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

regulates cortical arousal

Hindbrain (brainstem)

between the spinal cord and midbrain

Medulla

regulation of critical functions (heart rate, breathing, etc.)

Ventricles

extend throughout the brain and spinal cord, carrying cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which provides nutrition and cushion

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

Allele

Different forms of a gene

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

dominant gene

A gene that is expressed in the offspring whenever it is present

Recessive

An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait

Homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait

Most genetic disorders of humans are caused by

recessive alleles

Polygenic

describes a characteristic that is influenced by many genes (most traits)

Mutation

change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information

gene-environment interaction

situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed

range of reaction

asserts our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall

genetic environmental correlation

view of gene-environment interaction that asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes

Epigenetics

how the same genotype can be expressed different ways

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system, info processes

Soma

cell body

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

what environment does a neuron exist

water

threshold of excitation

the value of the membrane potential that must be reached to produce an action potential

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

action potentional

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

all or none law

the rule that neurons are either on or off

peak of action potential

sodium channels close

resisting potential

The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane.

positive outside, negative inside

Hyperpolarization

The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction.

Repolarization

Period during which potassium ions diffuse out of the neuron

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Biological Perspective

the psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior

Angonist

molecules similar enouch to a neurotransmitter that bind to its receptor and mimic its effects (example: morphine and codeine to endorphins)

SSRIs

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

psychotropic medications

drugs that mainly affect the brain and reduce many symptoms of mental dysfunctioning

CNS (central nervous system)

brain and spinal cord

PNS (peripheral nervous system)

cranial nerves and spinal nerves

somatic nervous system

Division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles.

efferent

motor neurons

afferent

sensory neurons

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

prepares the body for action in threatening situations

parasympathetic nervous system

returns the body to normal after a response to stress

fight or flight response

the initial reaction of the body to stress during the alarm stage part of sympathetic

Where does the spinal cord end?

just below the ribs

How many segments are in the spinal cord?

30

cerebral cortex

uneven surface of the brain, patterns of folds know as gyri and the grooves are sulci

longitudinal fissure

separates brain hemispheres

Lateralization

specialization of function in each hemisphere (left and right)

corpus callosum

a broad band of nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain.

Computerized Tomography (CT)

An imaging technology in which computers are used to enhance X-ray images

Position Emisson Tomography (PET)

scans of the living brain

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

technique that uses magnetic fields to indirectly visualize brain structure

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A noninvasive imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to map brain activity by measuring changes in the brain's blood flow and oxygen levels

electroeencephalography (EEG)

process of recording electrical brain activity

endocrine system

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

pituitary gland

the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

thyroid gland

produces hormones that regulate metabolism, body heat, and bone growth